BOOKS  WRITTEN  BY  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 


A  BIOGRAPHICAL  DIRECTORY  OF  AMERICAN  AGRICULTURAL  SCIENTISTS. 
Edited  and  published  at  Knoxville,  Term.,  1889;  pp.  100; 
flexible  cloth.     The  supply  of  this  work  is  exhausted. 

INDIAN  CORN  CULTURE 

Chicago:     The   Breeders'   Gazette   Print,    1895.     Cloth; 
pp.  243;  figs.  63. 

LITTLE  SKETCHES  OF  FAMOUS  BEEF  CATTLE 

Columbus,  Ohio :     Published  by  the  author,  1904.     Cloth; 
pp.  99. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Boston:     Ginn  &  Co.,  1906.     Completely  revised,  1920. 
Cloth;  pp.  820;  figs.  365. 

A  PARTIAL  INDEX  TO  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  LITERATURE 

Columbus,  Ohio;     Published  by  the  author,  1911.     Cloth; 
pp.  94. 

BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota:     The  Webb  Publishing  Co.,  1912. 
Cloth;  pp.  393;  figs.  217. 

JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

New  York:     Orange  Judd  Co.,   1916.     Cloth;  pp.  590; 
figs.  299. 


Frontispiece.  This  group  consists  of  the  champion  judges  in  the  boys'  and  girls' 
live  stock  clubs  of  Ohio  in  1921.  They  won  the  championships  at  the  Ohio 
State  University,  about  700  being  in  competition.  From  such  lads  much  may 
be  expected  in  the  future,  for  the  boys  of  to-day  are  to  be  the  stockmen  of 
to-morrow. 


A  STUDY 

OF 

FARM  ANIMALS 


BY 


Charles  S.  Plumb 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  College 
of  Agriculture  of  the  Ohio  State  University. 
Author  of  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals," 
"Judging  Farm  Animals,"  "Beginnings  in  Animal 
Husbandry,"  etc. 


The  Webb  Publishing  Company 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota 

1922 


COPYRIGHT  1922 

CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 
w.  i 

Made  in  U.  S.  A. 


FOREWORD 

During  the  past  decade  the  subject  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation for  our  secondary  schools  and  colleges  has  received 
much  attention.  Prior  to  this  period  a  number  of  general 
texts  on  agriculture  for  schools,  elementary  in  character,  pre- 
pared by  men  trained  in  general  science  or  classics,  were 
published.  These  texts  had  a  limited  distribution,  partly 
because  of  lack  of  interest  in  the  subject  by  teachers  and 
pupils,  and  partly  because  of  the  methods  of  presentation. 
These  authors  saw  no  way  of  handling  the  subject,  except- 
ing by  a  more  or  less  stereotyped  style,  in  which  chemistry, 
or  some  natural  science,  furnished  the  reasoning  basis. 

The  establishment  of  agricultural  colleges,  equipped  with 
farms,  and  working  laboratories  of  greenhouses,  orchards, 
gardens,  field  crops,  and  stables  with  their  contents  of  farm 
animals  and  utensils,  paved  the  way  to  a  new  and  interest- 
ing treatment  of  agricultural  subjects.  The  introduction  of 
popular  short  winter  courses  about  1890,  was  the  first  im- 
portant step  in  this  direction.  Simple  laboratory  exercises 
in  dairying,  horticulture,  and  live-stock  judging,  appealed  to 
students,  and  added  much  to  the  popularity  of  the  in- 
struction. As  an  outgrowth  of  these  has  come  the  great 
popular  movement  in  America  in  behalf  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation. Not  only  the  colleges,  but  many  secondary  schools 
have  adopted  agricultural  courses,  and  some  have  been 
equipped  with  farms  and  laboratories,  where  the  students 
are  taught  the  relationship  of  principles  to  farm  practice. 

The  evolution  in  agricultural  education  has  been  asso- 
ciated with  the  development  of  texts  that  have  covered  a 
wide  range  of  instruction,  and  which  have  supplied  a  vital 
interest  quite  lacking  in  most  of  the  books  published  prior 
to  the  year  1900.  In  fact,  we  have  a  new  agricultural  litera- 

5 

492 166 


6  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ture,  the  direct  outgrowth  of  recent  methods  of  education 
in  the  agricultural  college,  as  well  as  the  investigations  of 
our  experiment  stations. 

To  meet  what  was  regarded  as  a  real  need  in  sec- 
ondary schools  and  short  courses,  in  1912  the  author  pre- 
pared a  book  entitled  "Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry," 
the  first  text  of  its  kind  in  this  field  of  education,  prepared 
for  students  below  college  grade.  The  reception  given  this 
volume  by  educators  was  very  gratifying  to  the  author.  In 
the  passing  years,  however,  much  new  material  has  accum- 
ulated, and  courses  of  study  have  been  introduced  that  were 
not  generally  given  in  1912,  and  for  which  no  provisions 
were  made  in  "Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry."  The 
author  has,  therefore,  seen  fit  to  prepare  a  new  text,  that 
should  more  fully  meet  present  needs.  It  not  only  discusses 
the  feeding,  care,  and  management  of  animals  with  some 
detail,  as  applied  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry, 
but  considers  other  subjects  of  present-day  importance.  These 
include  community  breeding,  something  about  wool,  boys' 
and  girls'  live-stock  clubs,  co-operative  live-stock  shipping, 
and  culling  the  poultry  flock.  It  also  contains  besides  these, 
all  the  more  important  matter  relative  to  breeding,  the 
breeds,  and  judging,  as  set  forth  in  the  first  text.  "Begin- 
nings in  Animal  Husbandry"  consisted  of  28  chapters,  includ- 
ing 393  pages  and  217  illustrations,  while  the  present  text 
contains  44  chapters,  540  pages  and  256  illustrations. 

In  conclusion  the  author  would  quote  the  final  sentence 
of  the  Foreword  in  "Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry" :  "It 
is  his  earnest  hope  that  such  lessons  as  either  teacher  or 
pupil  shall  find  within  these  pages,  may  result  in  a  desire 
for  yet  wider  knowledge  of  and  a  more  sympathetic  interest 
in,  farm  animals." 
Ohio  State  University  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 

Columbus,  Ohio 
June  1,  1922. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS    . 

II.  HEREDITY:    ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE    . 

III.  SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE   .... 

IV.  PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE     .... 
V.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS     . 

VI.  COMMUNITY  BREEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

VII.  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

VIII.  THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION 

IX.  FEEDING  STANDARDS:    THEIR  ORIGIN  AND  USE 

X.  CALCULATING  FEEDING  RATIONS 

XI.  COARSE  FEEDS  OR  ROUGHAGE      .... 

XII.  CONCENTRATED  FEEDS 

XIII.  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

XIV.  ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE    . 

XV.  THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

XVI.  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE          .... 

XVII.  JUDGING  THE  HORSE 

XVIII.  FEEDING  THE  HORSE 

XIX.  THE  CARE  OF  HORSES 

XX.  BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE      .        . 

XXI.  JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 

XXII.  FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 

XXIII.  SOME  FACTORS  INFLUENCING  BEEF  PRODUCTION 

XXIV.  BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 

XXV.  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

XXVI.  FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION 

XXVII.  FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

XXVIII.  SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 

XXIX.  THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

XXX.  THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 

XXXI.  FEEDING  SHEEP 

XXXII.  THE  CARE  OF  SHEEP 

XXXIII.  THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

XXXIV.  JUDGING  SWINE 

XXXV.  FEEDING  SWINE 

XXXVI.  THE  CARE  OF  SWINE 

XXXVII.  BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE-STOCK  CLUBS 

XXXVIII.  COOPERATIVE  LIVE  STOCK  SHIPPING  ASSOCIATIONS 

XXXIX.  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

XL.  JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS 

XLI.  CULLING  THE  POULTRY  FLOCK     .... 

XLII.  EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 

XLIII.  THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

XLIV.  THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 

APPENDIX 

INDEX 


PAGE 

9 

21 

29 

38 

48 

57 

65 

74 

84 

93 

100 

115 

125 

138 

144 

164 

183 

197 

208 

217 

233 

245 

255 

269 

288 

300 

310 

322 

333 

356 

367 

379 

389 

404 

418 

430 

440 

450 

459 

473 

483 

491 

503 

515 

537 

541 


A  STUDY 
OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  study  of  domestic  animals  may  be  considered  both 
a  pleasure  and  a  duty — a  pleasure,  because  of  the  natural- 
born  interest  man  feels  in  all  animals ;  and  a  duty  on  account 
of  the  service  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  play  in  the 


Figure  1. — Hereford  bull,  Avondale,  champion  at  the  1914  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  Show,  England,  exhibited  by  King  George  V.  Photograph  by 
the  author. 

world's  affairs.  Between  many  people,  and  even  nations, 
and  their  domestic  animals,  we  find  an  affectionate,  sympa- 
thetic relationship.  The  people  of  Great  Britain,  the  world's 
leading  stockmen,  from  the  King  and  Queen  to  the  humblest 
laborer,  show  a  keen  and  kindly  interest  in  everything 

9 


10  'A   STUDY  .O.F  FARM   ANIMALS 

relating  to  farm  live  stock.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
sights  to  be  seen  in  Europe  is  the  annual  show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England,  where  live  stock  is  made 
the  leading  feature,  and  where  vast  throngs  of  people  go  to 
inspect  and  talk  over  the  animals  and  watch  the  judges  at 
their  work.  The  average  Britisher  is  a  lover  of  animals, 
and  expresses  a  common,  inherited  sentiment.  This  dis- 
position on  the  part  of  a  people  develops  the  finer,  more 
sympathetic  qualities,  and  broadens  and  strengthens  char- 
acter. In  the  same  way,  the  boy  or  girl  who  shows  a  devo- 
tion to  the  animal  given  to  his  or  her  care  becomes  more 
sympathetic  and  broader  minded,  and  is  rendered  more 
resourceful  and  capable.  From  another  point  of  view,  ani- 
mals play  a  most  important  part  on  account  of  their  uses 
for  food  and  labor.  The  study  of  animals  as, relating  to 
farm  economy  and  the  markets  of  the  world  becomes,  there- 
fore, a  most  important  matter. 

The  commercial  importance  of  the  live  stock  industry  is 
so  great  that  only  a  brief  reference  can  be  made  to  it  here. 
One  is  unable  to  comprehend  the  magnitude  of  the  figures 
which  relate  to  either  numbers  or  values  of  farm  animals. 
According  to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Census,  on 
January  1,  1920,  the  farm  animals  in  this  country  made  the 
following  showing  in  numbers. 

Class  of  Live  Stock  Number 

Horses 21,848,000 

Mules 5,829,000 

Milch  cows 20,892,000 

Other  cattle* 48,031,000 

Sheep 35,435,000 

Swine 62,007,000 


194,042,000 

By  these  figures  we  see  that  we  had  in  1920  about  195 
million  animals  on  our  farms,  a  number  far  too  big  to 
comprehend.  The  significant  thing  is  simply  to  realize  the 
vastness  of  our  live-stock  industry,  and  the  enormous  sum  of 

*Includes  beef  cattle  of  various  kinds  and  oxen. 


Milch  cows 
Other  cattle 
Sheep 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  11 

money  here  invested,  besides  the  value  of  the  animals  them- 
selves. The  greatest  live-stock  producing  section  of  the 
country  includes  the  states  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 
and  Texas.  The  two  states  of  most  importance  in  numbers  of 
each  kind  of  live  stock  in  the  United  States  in  1920  are  as 
follows : 

Horses /  Iowa  first,  with 1,386,000  head 

\  Nebraska  second,  with 1,322,000 

Mules /  Texas  first,  with 849,000 

Georgia  second,  with 407,000 

Wisconsin  first,  with 2,763,000 

New  York  second,  with 2,081,000 

Texas  first,  with 4,768,000 

Iowa  second,  with 3,048,000 

Texas  first,  with 2,552,000 

California  second,  with 2,400,000     " 

Swine /  Iowa  first,  with 7,864,000     " 

Illinois  second,  with 4,640,000 

We  see  from  the  above  that  Iowa  ranks  first  with  num- 
bers of  horses  and  swine,  Texas  with  mules,  sheep  and  other 
cattle,  and  Wisconsin  with  milch  cows.  The  two  states, 
however,  that  have  the  greatest  numbers  of  superior  farm 
animals  of  the  different  kinds  are  Iowa  and  Illinois. 

The  importance  of  our  live  stock  may  also  be  seen  from 
another  point  of  view  in  connection  with  our  local  markets. 
The  city  of  Chicago  is  the  largest  live-stock  market  in  the 
world.  The  Union  Stock  Yards  of  that  city  cover  500 
acres,  and  received  in  1920  a  total  of  15^  millions  of  farm 
animals,  valued  at  over  665  millions  of  dollars.  Nearly 
268,000  car  loads  of  live  stock  were  received  in  these  yards 
in  1920.  This  is  equal  to  about  734  cars  a  day,  which,  at 
an  average  length  of  36  feet  to  a  car,  would  make  one  solid 
train  of  live  stock  about  5  miles  long.  There  are 
300  miles  of  railway  in  and  about  the  yards  to  handle  all 
this  great  traffic.  Some  100,000  people  live  about  the  yards 
and  get  their  daily  incomes  from  them.  Here  are  immense 


12 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


slaughter  houses  and  meat-packing  plants  from  which  meats 
are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Union  Stock 
Yards  and  packing  houses  are  noted  features  of  the  great 
city  of  Chicago  and  are  daily  visited  by  tourists  from  all 
over  America  and  many  other  countries.  In  1920  there 
were  1,897  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  plants  in  the 
United  States,  in  which  were  killed  and  prepared  for  food, 
under  the  supervision  of  United  States  inspectors,  over  65 
millions  of  farm  animals.  These  figures  are  given  simply  to 
show  the  importance  of  the  live-stock  trade  and  the  part 
it  must  play  in  American  agriculture. 


Figure  2. — A  view  in  the  Kansas  City  Stock  Yards.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  first  use  of  animals  by  man  dates  back  to  the  days 
when  there  was  no  civilization,  when  no  written  records 
were  made,  and  the  people  lived  as  ignorant  savages.  It 
was  in  prehistoric  times,  when  the  only  implements  used 
were  very  crude  ones  made  by  hand,  of  stone,  iron  or  copper. 
That  animals  lived  with  man  in  these  prehistoric  days,  we 
know,  because  the  bones  of  man  and  those  of  horses,  cattle, 
and  other  animals  have  been  found  mingled  together  in  the 
remains  of  prehistoric  villages  in  Europe.  As  man  ascended 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  13 

in  the  scale  of  civilization,  we  find  that  animals  became  more 
and  more  associated  with  him  in  his  daily  life.  The  oldest 
historical  works  make  frequent  reference  to  farm  animals. 
In  consulting  the  Bible,  one  will  find  in  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
dating  back  over  2,000  years  before  Christ,  repeated  refer- 
ence to  herdsmen  and  horses  and 'asses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  In  fact,  these  people  of  early  days  were  farmers, 
and  depended  largely  on  their  live  stock. 

The  importance  of  domestic  animals  to  man  is  to  be  seen 
in  several  ways.  There  are  some  features  of  special  interest 
to  the  student;  namely,  (a)  the  use  of  animals  for  clothing, 
(b)  for  food,  (c)  for  labor,  and  (d)  in  relation  to  maintaining 
soil  fertility.  Each  of  these  is  of  sufficient  importance  to 
justify  special  consideration. 

The  use  of  animals  for  clothing  refers  to  the  skin,  hair, 
and  wool  or  other  hairy  covering.  Earliest  man  is  supposed 
to  have  used  the  skins  of  animals  for  clothing,  especially  in 
the  cooler  regions  or  during  the  colder  seasons  of  the  year. 

For  thousands  of  years  people  have  woven  cloth  from 
wool  and  the  hair  of  camels  and  goats.  At  the  present  day 
the  making  of  cloth  from  wool  is  a  great  industry  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world.  Millions  of  sheep  even  now  have 
their  chief  value  in  the  wool  that  they  produce.  The  lead- 
ing industry  of  a  number  of  English  and  American  towns 
and  cities  is  the  converting  of  wool  into  clothing;  so  we  find 
in  them  great  mills  employing  thousands  of  people. 

The  use  of  animals  for  food  is  of  first  importance.  It  is 
for  this  purpose  that  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  have  been 
domesticated;  and  the  final  end  of  all  farm  animals  except 
the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  must  be  for  human  food.  Meat  is 
a  concentrated  food,  rich  in  the  substances  that  give  strong 
physical  development.  It  is  said  that  the  meat-eating  na- 
tions rule  the  world;  and,  when  we  realize  that  the  people 
of  North  America,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany  are 
the  greatest  consumers  of  this  food,  we  are  inclined  to  be- 


14  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

lieve  the  statement  to  be  true.  The  average  person  in  the 
United  States  eats  about  150  pounds  of  meat  a  year.  With 
a  population  in  excess  of  one  hundred  million  people,  it  can 
be  easily  understood  that  an  enormous  number  of  animals 
must  be  slaughtered  for  food  each  year. 

There  is  also  another  important  source  of  food  from  ani- 
mals, that  of  milk  and  its  products.  Cattle  have  been  so 
improved  since  domestication  began,  that  to-day  we  have 
cows  producing  remarkable  yields  of  milk.  A  yield  of  5,000 
pounds  of  milk  a  year  is  very  common;  a  large  number  of 
cows  have  produced  10,000  pounds;  a  yield  of  15,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year  from  a  single  animal  is  no  longer  remark- 
able. Milk  is  a  very  nutritious  liquid  food,  and  supplies  a 
place  in  human  diet  unequaled  by  any  other  substance. 
From  milk  is  manufactured  cheese,  a  valuable  food  that  in 
Europe  very  generally  takes  the  place  of  meat  among  the 
laboring  classes.  Butter,  also  a  product  of  milk,  is  so  greatly 
in  demand  that  thousands  of  creameries  engage  in  its  pro- 
duction. In  1920,  there  were  over  twenty  million  cows  and 
heifers  kept  in  the  United  States,  primarily  for  milk.  Ten 
states  had  over  one  million  dairy  cows  each. 

The  use  of  animals  for  labor  no  doubt  dates  from  pre- 
historic days  when  man  subdued  the  horse.  With  the  culti- 
vation of  the  fields,  both  cattle  and  horses  became  beasts  of 
burden  and  laborers  in  the  fields.  Cattle  are  commonly 
used  for  labor  in  parts  of  Europe,  even  dairy  cows  some- 
times being  employed  to  draw  loads.  Oxen  were  much  used 
in  pioneer  days  for  draft  work  in  America,  but  have  been 
generally  discarded  on  account  of  their  slowness,  yet  even 
to-day  they  may  be  seen  serving  in  place  of  horses  in  some 
parts  of  our  country.  In  the  pioneer  settlement  of  America, 
the  ox  team  proved  a  very  important  means  of  transporta- 
tion through  the  forests  and  across  the  wide  western  prairies. 
The  great  endurance,  steady  habits,  and  ease  of  keep,  make 
the  ox  a  favorite  with  the  pioneer. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


15 


In  countries  other  than  our  own,  where  railways  do  not 
exist,  the  transportation  of  freight  must  be  done  by  animals 
or  on  the  shoulders  of  men.  In  many  countries  the  people 
use  the  backs  of  animals  for  this  purpose.  In  northern 
Africa,  the  camel  is  known  as  "the  ship  of  the  desert,"  for 
on  its  back  is  carried  both  man  and  .freight  from  the  interior 
to  the  coast.  In  parts  of  Asia,  the  elephant  becomes  a 
mighty  beast  of  burden,  performing  wonderful  draft  service. 
The  little  donkey,  regarded  in  America  as  simply  a  play- 


Figure  3. — An  ox  team  in  Washington  State.     Photograph  by  Bert  C.  Thomas. 

thing  for  children,  is  widely  used  over  the  world  as  a  burden 
bearer  of  the  most  steady  and  dependable  sort. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  domestic  animals,  even  to-day, 
play  a  very  important  part  in  moving  merchandise  and  per- 
forming labor.  Although  the  motor-truck  has  become  an 
important  medium  for  transporting  freight  in  our  towns  and 


16  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

cities,  largely  replacing  the  horse  in  this  service,  still  the 
work  horse,  and  especially  the  one  suited  for  heavy  draft,  is 
here  in  constant  demand.  The  tractor  is  well  adapted  to 
certain  farm  operations,  supplanting  the  horse,  but  this  ani- 
mal is  yet  indispensable  for  many  purposes  on  our  farms, 
and  will  always  be  an  important  part  of  farm  equipment. 
Professor  T.  F.  Hunt  states*  that  in  England  it  is  estimated 
that  two  horses  will  cultivate  80  acres  of  light  and  sandy 
soil  or  60  acres  of  heavy,  or  clay,  soil.  In  the  United  States, 
it  appears  that  one  horse  or  mule  of  working  age  is  kept  for 
every  30  acres  of  improved  land;  but  in  level  prairie  sec- 
tions far  more  service  than  this  indicates  is  expected. 

The  use  of  domestic  animals  in  maintaining  soil  fertil- 
ity has  long  been  recognized  as  of  great  importance.  The 
earliest  writers  on  agriculture,  who  lived  just  prior  to  the 
Christian  era,  about  two  thousand  years  ago,  wrote  more 
or  less  of  the  value  of  manures  in  keeping  the  soil  fertile. 
The  farmer  of  those  days  learned  from  experience  that,  if  he 
took  a  crop  from  the  land  one  year,  the  next  harvest  from 
the  same  soil  would  be  smaller  unless  manure  was  used  to 
replace  the  fertility  removed  in  the  crop.  Thus  we  see  that 
twenty  centuries  ago  the  farmer  learned  that  he  must 
replace  fertility  in  his  soil  if  he  expected  to  reap  abundant 
harvests.  To  secure  this  necessary  fertility,  he  used  the 
manure  provided  by  farm  animals;  and  much  was  written 
about  the  value  of  the  excrement  from  different  kinds  of 
animals,  and  the  preservation  of  manures. 

In  very  recent  times,  artificial  fertilizers  have  come  into 
extensive  use.  But,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  the  natural  ma- 
nures of  animals  have  been  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  most  regions  where  high-class 
farming  is  practiced.  There  are  lands  in  Europe  to-day, 
said  to  have  been  cultivated  for  2,000  years,  that  grow  great 
crops,  made  possible  by  the  use  of  animal  manures.  This 
statement  may  be  accepted  as  a  fact,  that,  except  in  the  case 

*Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  Ill,  1908,  p.  11. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  17 

of  some  great  river  valleys,  like  the  Nile,  which  are  enriched 
by  annual  overflow,  no  agricultural  region  has  continued  to 
grow  abundant  harvests  without  the  aid  of  manure  from 
domestic  animals.  Each  year  the  wheat  fields  of  Canada 
and  the  corn  fields  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  yield  in  reduced 
amounts  per  acre,  unless  fertility  replaces  that  removed  by 
the  crop.  Experience  has  also  shown  that,  where  farmers 
keep  the  most  live  stock,  there  the  crops  are  most  abundant 
and  the  people  most  prosperous. 

We  purchase  commercial  fertilizers  to  restore  fertility 
to  the  soil;  but  these  lack  one  thing  of  great  importance 
found  in  stable  manures,  and  that  is  vegetable  matter,  which 
is  as  necessary  to  the  soil  as  is  the  chemical  nutriment.  The 
rotted  manure  in  the  soil  makes  it  more  porous  and  mellow 
and  permits  the  entrance  of  air  and  the  growth  of  roots 
through  it  more  freely  than  where  no  vegetable  mould  is 
present.  Interesting  experiments  conducted  for  more  than 
seventy  continuous  years  on  the  same  land,  in  England,  at 
Rothamsted  Experiment  Station,  showed  that  wheat  grown 
on  unmanured  land  yielded  just  about  12  bushels  per  acre, 
while  a  yield  of  about  40  bushels  occurred  where  stable  ma- 
nure was  used.  A  ton  of  average  stable  manure  is  regarded 
as  containing  about  $2.50  worth  of  plant  food.  Professor 
Roberts  has  figured*  that  the  average  value  of  the  manure 
produced  by  a  cow  each  day  is  8  cents,  while  that  of  a  horse 
is  worth  about  a  half  cent  less.  The  value  of  stable  ma- 
nure, however,  depends  upon  the  feed  the  animal  gets.  Feed 
rich  in  grain  makes  a  more  valuable  manure  than  that  from 
hay  only,  and  so  will  return  more  fertility  to  the  soil. 

The  animal  is  a  machine  for  changing  coarse  into  fine 
material.  The  ideal  kind  of  farming  combines  the  growing 
of  grass  and  grain  and  the  feeding  of  these  to  the  animals 
of  the  farm.  These  raw  crops  are  thus  converted  into  con- 
centrated and  high  priced  products,  as  represented  in  meat, 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  or  breeding  stock.  A  large  percentage 

*Bulletin  56,  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station. 


18  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  food  consumed  returns  to  the  farm  to  keep  up  its 
fertility.  Some  forms  of  stock  farming  remove  but  very 
little  of  the  actual  soil  fertility.  One  reason  why  dairy- 
cattle  farming  meets  with  so  much  favor  is  because  of  the 
small  amount  of  fertility  sold  from  the  farm  in  milk  or 
butter.  Professor  Vivian  states*  that  the  fertilizing  value  of 
a  ton  of  butter  is  but  44  cents,  and  that  5,000  pounds  of 
milk  contain  but  $4.89  worth  of  fertility.  As  much  as  80 
or  85  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  food  or  crop  becomes 
animal  excrement,  and  which  under  a  progressive  system  of 
agriculture  is  returned  to  the  soil  for  its  upbuilding. 

When,  as  in  case  of  dairy-cattle  farming,  much  more 
grain  is  fed  than  is  grown  on  the  farm,  then  the  land  steadily 
improves  in  its  producing  capacity.  The  best  examples  of 
intelligent  general  farming  are  to  be  found  where  herds  and 
flocks  are  kept  as  important  features  of  a  well-balanced 
farm  system.  Where  the  special  business  is  stock  farming, 
then  the  final  product  in  its  concentrated  form  will  yield 
far  more  important  and  profitable  returns  in  the  long  run 
than  will  any  other  method.  One  hundred  acres  of  grain 
shipped  a  thousand  miles  require  a  large  expenditure  of 
labor  and  money,  while  this  same  crop,  in  the  form  of  a  con- 
centrated product  like  butter  or  meat,  may  be  transported 
at  relatively  much  less  expense. 

Live  stock  farming  is  adapted  to  the  cheaper  and  rougher 
lands.  Much  land  that  might  not  be  used  for  other  pur- 
poses can  be  devoted  to  pasturing  farm  animals.  The  grass 
on  the  hills  is  usually  finer  and  sweeter  than  on  the  lowlands. 
In  various  parts  of  the  world  where  the  land  is  naturally 
poor  or  of  a  rough  character,  stock  farming  is  an  important 
industry.  In  fact,  no  other  kind  of  farming  is  so  well 
adapted  to  these  conditions.  On  the  Cheviot  Hills  of  Scot- 
land, the  principal  industry  is  that  of  sheep  raising,  grass 
and  sheep  being  the  two  crops.  In  Switzerland,  high  up  on 
the  mountain  sides  are  pastures  which  annually  furnish  feed 

*First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  1908,  p.  120-121. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  FARM  ANIMAL8 


19 


for  many  dairy  cows.  On  the  rough,  cheap  hillsides  of  New 
England,  dairy  cattle  are  the  most  important  source  of 
income  to  the  farmer.  On  the  high,  grassy  hills  of  eastern 
Ohio,  western  Pennsylvania,  and  West  Virginia,  are  to  be 
found  the  largest  flocks  of  sheep  in  this  country  east  of  the 
Missouri  river.  In  the  Southwest  and  far  West  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  cheaper  rolling  or  broken  lands,  will  be  found 
extensive  herds  and  flocks.  In  the  Northwest,  among  the 
cut-over  lands  that  have  been  deprived  of  their  timber 


Figure  4. — Fat  cattle  on  Ohio  hills.       Photograph  by  the  author. 

by  the  lumbermen,  dairy  cattle  and  dairymen  are  being 
developed  on  a  greater  scale  than  elsewhere  in  America.  In 
fact,  the  farmer  generally  plans  on  the  use  of  his  cheaper, 
poorer  lands  as  pasture  for  stock.  Rightly  handled,  these 
lands  in  most  cases  greatly  increase  in  producing  capacity 
and  value.  Inasmuch  as  live  stock  also  finds  an  appropriate 
place  on  the  more  fertile  and  level  farms,  we  must  recognize 
the  fact  that  animals  are  adapted  to  greater  extremes  of  soil 
and  land  conditions  than  are  the  staple  crops.  Thus  ani- 
mals in  a  world-wide  sense  become  subjects  of  great  impor- 
tance and  interest. 

The  class  of  people  handling  livestock,  as  a  rule,  repre- 
sents the  more  intelligent  and  progressive  farmers  of  the 


20  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

community.  Their  homes  and  farm  buildings  indicate  com- 
fort and  prosperity,  when  compared  with  what  one  sees  on 
farms  where  live  stock  is  not  a  part  of  the  system  of  manage- 
ment. There  is  a  pride  in  the  ownership  of  a  fine  herd  that 
creates  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  owner  to  improve  and 
beautify  his  home.  Thus  he  becomes  interested  in  com- 
munity welfare,  and  often  renders  service  of  a  public  nature 
that  is  much  to  his  credit.  The  most  beautiful  and  attrac- 
tive farm  homes  one  sees  in  traveling  through  England  and 
Scotland,  are  occupied  by  men  who  are  owners  of  fine  flocks 
and  herds.  In  the  United  States  the  same  condition  pre- 
vails, whether  we  are  in  the  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky,  or 
the  wide  prairies  of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  or  the  alfalfa  fields  of 
Kansas  and  Colorado.  Should  we  not,  therefore,  do  all  we 
can  to  create  an  interest  in  farm  animals,  and  thus  develop 
a  higher  class  of  citizenship  amongst  us? 

DO  YOU  KNOW 

1.  What  people  are  especially  interested  in  live  stock? 

2.  How  many  farms  animals  we  have  in  the  United  States? 

3.  What  states  lead  in  numbers  of  each  kind  of  live  stock? 

4.  How  many  car  loads  of  stock  enter  Chicago  market  daily? 

5.  When  man  first  domesticated  animals? 

6.  How  much  meat  we  eat  per  capita  a  year? 

7.  What  cattle  are  used  for  labor? 

8.  How  live  stock  is  related  to  farm  fertility? 

9.  What  a  ton  of  stable  manure  is  worth? 
10.  How  the  animal  resembles  a  machine? 


CHAPTER  II 
HEREDITY:    ITS  MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE 

The  word  heredity  has  long  been  used  by  scientific  men 
when  discussing  the  important  subject  of  breeding  animals 
and  plants.  As  commonly  defined,  it  means  the  reproduc- 
tion in  the  offspring  of  the  characteristics  of  the  parents.  It 
means  more  than  that,  however,  because  the  parentage  of 
an  animal  or  plant  extends  further  back  than  one  generation. 

The  degree  or  extent  that  characteristics  may  be  inherited 
from  parents,  grandparents,  and  more  distant  generations, 
can  not  be  absolutely  determined.  Yet,  that  animals  and 
plants  do  inherit  from  other  generations  than  the  parents,  is 
a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  In  fact,  everything  found 
in  the  animal,  whether  physical  or  mental,  excepting  cer- 
tain diseases,  has  been  transmitted  through  previous  genera- 
tions. We  know  that  under  average  conditions  there  is  a 
certain  degree  of  resemblance  between  an  animal  and  its 
various  ancestors.  Yet  there  are  conditions  which  greatly 
affect  heredity.  Writing  on  "the  complex  nature  of  hered- 
ity," Davenport  says:*  "The  most  disconcerting  principle 
in  all  improvement  operations  lies  back  of  the  obvious  fact 
that  the  offspring  is  not  like  the  parent.  Having  two  parents, 
he  could  not  of  course  be  like  them  both.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  for  the  most  part  he  is  not  like  either  one  of  them, 
nor  yet  is  he  like  the  two  combined.  The  most  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  offspring  resembles  his  parents,  and  that  all 
his  characters  are  to  be  found  somewhere  in  his  parentage." 

The  persistence  of  heredity  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  its  influence  on  the  offspring.  The  older  and  better 
established  the  family,  the  more  uniform  and  certain  is  the 
transmission.  We  say  that  an  animal,  family,  breed,  or 

*Domesticated  Animals  and  Plants,  1910,  p.  154. 

21 


22  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

race  that  transmits  its  special  characteristics  with  much 
certainty,  is  prepotent.  This  word  suggests  power,  and 
really  means  superior  influence.  Wild  animals  and  birds 
represent  the  purest  and  most  prepotent  breeding.  They 
live  and  develop  under  conditions  that  are  most  natural  and 
uniform,  thus  resulting  in  the  least  change.  One  wild  fox 
differs  but  little  from  other  wild  foxes  of  the  same  kind  in 
form,  color,  and  mental  traits.  In  the  opinion  of  scientists 
they  must  have  had  these  characters  for  a  great  length  of 
time.  The  same  conclusion  applies  to  any  other  one  species, 
the  product  of  wild  conditions. 

The  most  prepotent  domestic  animals  are  those  that  have 
been  bred  pure  for  long  generations.  A  breed  like  Hereford 
cattle,  the  family  relationship  of  which  can  be  traced  back 
for  a  hundred  years,  represents  a  comparatively  well-estab- 
lished type  and  character.  In  a  herd  of  these  cattle  we 
should  expect  to  find  the  typical  horn  and  head,  the  blocky 
form,  the  red  body  and  white  face,  brisket,  tail,  and  feet 
color  so  universally  known.  We  have  examples,  however, 
of  old  breeds  that  have  not  been  developed  by  great  con- 
structive breeders,  and  consequently  a  lack  of  individual 
excellence  among  a  great  number  of  the  animals  is  found. 
The  importance  of  heredity  in  stock  breeding  has  long 
been  recognized.  The  men  who  have  been  most  noted  in 
the  development  of  each  of  the  great  breeds  have  agreed  that 
the  saying,  "like  produces  like,"  contains  much  truth.  In 
fact,  in  breeding  operations  they  have  placed  a  premium  on 
prepotency  and  uniformity  of  character.  Bates,  the  great 
Shorthorn  breeder,  was  a  stickler  for  type  and  character. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  any  other  man  who  has  become 
celebrated  as  a  breeder  of  superior  animals.  If  a  man  wishes 
to  produce  race  horses,  he  must  use  race-horse  blood,  in 
which  speed  has  been  the  important  feature.  Great  records 
are  being  made  among  dairy  cattle  to-day,  and  certain 
families  are  noted  producers.  In  studying  the  history  of 


HEREDITY:    MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE 


23 


the  development  of  the  modern  dairy  cow,  one  will  find  that 
the  inheritance  of  milk  or  butter-fat  production  is  a  great 
prepotent  feature.  This  prepotency  is  illustrated  in  a  strik- 
ing manner  in  the  ancestry  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  cow 
De  Kol  Creamelle.  She  produced  780.4  pounds  of  milk  in 
a  week,  her  daughter  Creamelle  Vale  750.2  pounds,  her 
granddaughter  Dutchland  Colantha  Vale  765.3  pounds,  and 
her  great  granddaughter  Dutchland  Pietertje  Vale  750 
pounds  in  a  week,  a  remarkable  series  of  records.  Anyone 


Figure  5. — Hereford    bull,    Disturber    12th,   owned  by  Ferguson  Brothers  of 
Minnesota.     Photograph  from  the  owners. 

who  attempts  to  establish  and  develop  a  herd  without  being 
guided  by  our  present-day  knowledge  of  the  influence  of 
heredity  will  certainly  fail  in  his  breeding  operations. 

The  importance  of  an  ideal  in  breeding  can  not  be  over- 
estimated. Men  who  have  done  much  to  assist  in  developing 
breeds  and  have  become  famous  in  this  work  are  com- 
monly called  "constructive  breeders."  In  the  upbuilding  of 
the  Shorthorn,  the  Colling  Brothers,  Bates,  the  Booths,  and 


24  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Cruickshank  were  all  known  as  great  constructive  breeders. 
These  men  had  their  ideals  or  standards,  and  bred  up  to 
them  as  closely  as  possible.  Two  men  start  out  with  herds 
of  cattle  of  equal  merit.  One  man  has  ideals  of  what  he 
should  do.  He  carefully  studies  his  cattle  and  the  laws  of 
heredity,  and  seeks  constantly  to  improve  his  herd.  At  the 
end  of  25  years  he  has  a  fine  herd,  that  is  a  marked  improve- 
ment over  his  foundation  stock,  and  from  which  he  derives 
much  praiseworthy  fame  and  substantial  profit.  The  other 
man  has  no  ideals  or  policy.  He  is  satisfied  with  things  as 
he  receives  them,  he  does  not  study  his  business,  and,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  his  stock  becomes  inferior  and 
unprofitable,  he  gets  in  debt,  and  ends  possibly  in  bank- 
ruptcy. One  man  is  a  benefit  to  his  community,  the  other 
is  not;  yet  each  had  an  equal  chance  at  the  start. 

Certain  useful  and  valuable  forms  of  inheritance  exist 
among  the  improved  types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals,  and 
the  perpetuation  of  these  qualities  is  most  important,  if  one 
is  to  make  a  success  of  breeding.  Some  of  these  forms  that 
directly  concern  the  stockman  are  the  following: 

(1)  Color  markings.     One  of  the  most  important  features 
of  breed  identification  is  the  color.     Some  breeds  possess  a 
solid,  uniform  color,  as  the  red  of  the  Red  Polled  cattle,  the 
black  of  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  the  white  of  the  Chester  White 
and  Large  Yorkshire  pigs,  and  the  red  of  the  Duroc-Jersey. 
Fach  breed  has  its  standard  color  or  colors,  and  anything 
varying  from  this,  as  a  rule,  causes  disqualification. 

(2)  Milk    production.     The    Holstein-Friesian    breed    is 
noted  for  the  large  milk  flow  of  the  cows.     No  other  breed 
of  cows  equals  these  in  heavy  flow  of  milk,  and  no  feature 
does  more  to  make  the  Holstein-Friesian  famous  than  that 
of  milk  production. 

(3)  Fecundity  is  especially  a  hereditary  character.    Shrop- 
shire sheep  have  been  noted  for  many  years  for  the  large 
percentage  of  twins  dropped  by  the  ewes.     The  Large  York- 


HEREDITY:    MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE 


25 


shire  and  the  Tamworth  breeds  of  hogs  are  famous  for  the 
large  litters  farrowed  by  the  sows,  while  of  the  lard-type 
breeds  the  Duroc-Jersey  is  prominent  in  this  respect. 

(4)  Temperament.     As  a  rule,  animals  of  a  heavy,  fleshy 
type  are  more  phlegmatic  and  less  nervous  than  those  of 
more  muscular  build.     Draft  horses,   beef  cattle,   mutton 
sheep,  and  lard  hogs  all  show  to  a  certain  extent  this  relation- 
ship of  form  to  temperament. 

(5)  Speed  is  a  striking  feature  of  the  horse  of  light  and 
muscular  conformation.     A  study  of  the  pedigrees  of  run- 
ning horses  prominent  to-day  will  in  many  cases  show  lines 


Figure  6. — Holstein  Friesian  cow  Prilly  40082  at  13  years  old,  on  the  left,  and 
her  three  daughters  Beauty  Pietertje,  Cleopatra  Gelsches,  and  Eliza 
Pietertje,  all  great  producers.  Photograph  from  their  owner,  H.  A.  Moyer. 

of  descent  from  the  Darley  Arabian,  with  long  lists  of  cele- 
brated racers  in  between,  covering  the  period  of  over  a 
century.  In  the  same  way,  the  record  of  inherited  speed  of 
the  American  trotter  may  be  traced  in  a  most  interesting 
way  from  the  present  back  to  about  1822,  when  Bellfo under, 
the  sire  of  the  dam  of  Hambletonian  10,  by  many  regarded 
as  the  most  noted  speed  sire  in  the  history  of  America, 
was  imported  to  this  country  from  England. 


2G  A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

Peculiar  or  interesting  characters  are  also  transmitted 
from  one  generation  to  another.  We  are  usually  most  im- 
pressed with  the  commonest  things  in  animal  inheritance, 
yet  there  are  remarkable  characteristics  that  are  well  worth 
attention,  and  such  as  demand  consideration  from  the 
thoughtful  stockman.  Usually  these  are  valued  as  breed 
features,  yet  in  themselves  they  have  no  useful  attributes. 
Some  examples  of  these  are  the  following:  The  solid  hoof  in 
the  hog  is  a  rare  occurrence,  except  with  one  breed,  the  Mule 
Foot.  This  characteristic  is  of  no  special  value,  but  it  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  much  publicity,  and  many  persons 
from  curiosity  have  purchased  specimens  of  Mule  Foot  hogs! 
A  pug-nosed,  dished  face  is  a  distinct  feature  of  the  Small 
Yorkshire  breed  of  swine.  Often  these  pigs  are  bred  so  that 
the  lower  jaw  projects  with  an  upward  curve  beyond  the 
short,  dished  upper  jaw,  seriously  affecting  ease  of  eating. 
Berkshire  breeders  in  America  in  late  years  have  also  had  a 
tendency  to  breed  these  very  short,  turned-up  faces.  Such 
heads  are  monstrosities,  in  the  same  class  with  those  of  bull 
dogs  and  Boston  terriers.  Five  toes  on  each  foot  are  found 
on  the  Houdan  and  Dorking  breeds  of  chickens.  This  num- 
ber of  toes  commonly  occurs  on  all  good  specimens  of  these 
two  varieties  of  well-known  European  fowls,  although  four 
is  the  usual  number  with  other  breeds. 

Latent  hereditary  characters  exist  in  all  animal  life.  By 
these  are  meant  characteristics  that  are  not  visible  in  any 
form  in  one  or  more  generations,  yet  have  occurred  in  the 
past,  and  may  again  appear  at  some  time  in  the  future. 
During  the  past,  students  of  heredity  have  called  such  occur- 
rences "atavism/'  while  stockmen  have  been  in  the  habit 
of  referring  to  them  as  "throwing  back,"  or  "breeding  back." 
For  example,  we  have  a  case  of  a  family  of  Aberdeen-Angus 
cattle,  which  is  a  black  breed.  Very  unexpectedly  a  red 
calf  is  dropped  in  a  herd  where  not  a  red  animal  has  been 
known.  Yet  a  careful  study  of  the  history  of  this  herd  will 


HEREDITY:    MEANING  AND  INFLUENCE  27 

show  that  at  a  previous  period  there  was  a  red  ancestor. 
This  red  color  was  really  hereditary,  but  lay  dormant,  or 
latent,  as  it  is  termed,  for  some  generations,  and  then  cropped 
out.  The  stockman  usually  calls  this  a  "sport."  Scientists 
speak  of  it  as  a  "mutation."  The  important  point,  how- 
ever, is  that  this  character  really  was  inherited  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  but  did  not  appear  until  certain  con- 
ditions were  favorable.  Many  similar  cases  might  be  cited 
that  have  caused  much  comment  among  stockmen.  In  this 
connection,  it  may  be  noted  that  mutation  occurs  less  fre- 
quently with  old,  well-established  breeds  than  with  those 


Figure  7. — A  good  example  of  fecundity,  a  Duroc-Jersey  sow  and  litter  of  14 
pigs.     Photograph  from  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

not  so  old  and  less  under  natural  than  under  artificial  con- 
ditions. It  is  also  important  to  remember  that  sometimes 
mutation  results  in  valuable  variations  from  the  parent  type. 
Instances  have  occurred  where  intelligent  breeders  have 
recognized  the  value  of  such  a  "sport,"  and  have  succeeded 
in  reproducing  it  through  successive  generations,  until  it 
became  a  fixed  breed  feature.  More  than  one  hornless  breed 
of  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  founded  by  the  unexpected 
appearance  of  a  polled  animal  in  a  horned  herd.  This 
anomaly  applies  especially  to  Polled  Jersey,  Polled  Hereford, 


28  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  Polled  Shorthorn  cattle,  each  of  which  breeds  is  now 
championed  by  a  registry  association  for  promoting  the 
hornless  head. 

Variation  in  animal  character  is  to  be  seen  on  every  hand. 
No  two  animals  are  exactly  alike.  In  a  family  of  the  same 
parentage  we  find  marked  differences.  Within  our  intimate 
acquaintance,  we  are  often  impressed  with  the  striking  dif- 
ferences between  members  of  the  same  family.  Among  our 
domestic  animals  differences  also  exist  in  no  small  degree, 
although  our  attention  may  not  be  attracted  by  them  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  human  family.  Yet  variation  is  a 
common  occurrence  in  all  life.  It  is  due  to  this  very  fact 
that  man  has  been  able  to  improve  and  develop  our  farm 
animals  to  their  present  stage  of  perfection.  Animal  life 
is  plastic  and  more  or  less  susceptible  to  the  influence  of 
artificial  conditions  which  man  more  or  less  controls.  Food, 
habits,  surroundings,  the  care  of  man,  all  affect  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dumb  beast  in  a  notable  manner.  It  should 
be  the  business  of  the  stockman  to  study  these  conditions 
and  use  them  to  the  material  improvement  of  his  own  herd. 

IF  YOU  INHERIT  A  GOOD  MEMORY,  YOU  SHOULD  KNOW 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  word  heredity. 

2.  Under  what  conditions  prepotency  is  best  seen. 

3.  Why  a  knowledge  of  heredity  is  important  in  stock  breeding. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  constructive  breeders. 

5.  The  value  of  color  markings  in  breed  inheritance. 

6.  The  relation  of  conformation  and  inherited  speed. 

7.  Some  peculiar  forms  of  heredity. 

8.  The  possible  value  of  mutation. 

9.  What  conditions  influence  variation. 

FIND  EXAMPLES  OF  INTERESTING  CASES  OF  HEREDITY 

10.  Report  on  the  best  examples  of  heredity  extending  over  at  least 

two  generations,  in  which  very  similar  characters  appear. 

11.  What  is  the  most  prepotent  animal  in  the  neighborhood,  and  why? 

12.  Report  on  any  herd  showing  high  ideals  of  the  owner. 

13.  Interesting  cases  of  fecundity  among  brood  sows  are  not  difficult 

to  find.     Look  some  up  and  report  upon  them. 

14.  What    is   the    most    interesting    and  peculiar   case  of  heredity 

within  your  knowledge? 

15.  Find  a  case  of  atavism  worth  reporting. 


CHAPTER  III 
SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 

The  principle  of  selection  involves  some  method  by  which 
one  or  more  animals  are  selected  for  specific  purposes.  The 
scientist  recognizes  two  great  classes  of  selection,  one,  natural ; 
the  other,  artificial. 

Natural  selection  is  the  process  in  operation  among  wild 
animals  by  which  individuals  choose  or  select  their  mates. 
Force  is  an  important  medium  under  such  circumstances. 
A  good  example  of  the  application  of  natural  selection  is 
found  with  the  deer.  The  males  fight  among  themselves 
to  determine  which  shall  be  master  of  the  herd,  and  the 
strongest,  most  masterful  secures  the  leadership.  This  is 
what  is  sometimes  termed  "the  survival  of  the  fittest." 
Among  all  wild  animals  a  similar  method  of  selection  exists 
to  a  more  or  less  degree.  This  system  weeds  out  the  weakly, 
inferior  animals  and  promotes  the  vitality  of  the  race.  Refer- 
ring to  this  subject,  Henry  Drummond  states:*  "The 
object  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  is  to  produce  fitness,  and 
it  does  so,  both  negatively  and  positively.  In  the  first  place 
it  produces  fitness  by  killing  off  the  unfit.  Without  the 
rigorous  weeding  out  of  the  imperfect  the  progress  of  the 
world  had  not  been  possible.  If  fit  and  unfit  indiscriminately 
had  been  allowed  to  live  and  reproduce  their  kind,  every 
improvement  which  any  individual  might  acquire  would  be 
degraded  to  the  common  level  in  the  course  of  a  few  genera- 
tions. Progress  can  start  only  by  one  or  two  individuals' 
shooting  ahead  of  their  species,  and  their  life  gain  can  be 
conserved  only  by  their  being  shut  off  from  their  species  or 
by  their  species  being  shut  off  from  them."  Again  he  says: 
"If  a  given  number  must  die,  that  number  must  be  singled 

*The  Ascent  of  Man. 

29 


30  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

out  upon  some  principle,  and  we  can  not  quarrel  with  the 
principle  in  physical  nature  which  condemns  to  death  the 
worst."  Natural  selection,  therefore,  represents  a  progres- 
sive development,  with  each  succeeding  generation  some- 
what stronger  and  better  bred  for  meeting  the  requirements 
of  existence.  An  especially  interesting  phase  of  natural 
selection  is,  that  through  it  the  species  is  developed  so  as  to 
be  best  adapted  to  its  purpose  and  condition  of  living. 

Artificial  selection  involves  the  introduction  of  man.  He 
controls  the  matter  of  selection,  and  thereby  is  able  to  cause 
the  animal  to  vary  more  or  less  from  the  parent  type.  In 
the  earliest  times,  no  doubt  man  exercised  some  control  over 
the  animals  that  he  found  useful,  and  caused  changes  in 


Figure  8. — The  first  prize  Shorthorn  herd,  Ringmaster  at  head,  the  result  of 
a  policy  in  selection.  Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 

their  development.  Thus  man's  ability  to  affect  the  pur- 
pose and  value  of  dumb  animals  must  have  appeared  evident 
to  him  long  ago.  The  famous  sculptures  of  Egypt  and 
Nineveh,  dating  back  thousands  of  years,  show  that  domestic 
animals  at  that  time  must  have  been  improved  by  man 
through  the  practice  of  selection.  The  Bible  has  been 
repeatedly  quoted  by  writers  on  heredity,  to  show  that  the 
influence  of  selection  was  recognized  prior  to  the  time  of 
Christ,  as  expressed  in  Genesis.  Early  writers  like  Plato, 
Pliny,  and  Columella,  all  refer  to  the  improvement  of  live 
stock  by  selection.  All  through  the  intervening  centuries  up 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  31 

to  the  present  time,  interesting  references  occur  in  history 
of  the  seeking  of  animal  improvement  through  selection. 

Methodical  selection  is  a  term  used  by  Darwin  to  express 
the  more  systematic  artificial  process.  In  his  most  interest- 
ing work  on  "Animals  and  Plants  Under  Domestication," 
he  presents  much  evidence  to  show  the  practical  application 
of  selection,  and  especially  how  by  a  methodical,  carefully- 
planned  system,  remarkable  results  have  been  secured. 
Referring  to  this  method,  Darwin  says:  "Few  persons, 
except  breeders,  are  aware  of  the  systematic  care  taken  in 
selecting  animals,  and  of  the  necessity  of  having  a  clear  and 
almost  prophetic  vision  into  futurity.  Lord  Spencer's  skill 
and  judgment  were  well-known;  and  he  writes:  'It  is, 
therefore,  very  desirable,  before  any  man  commences  to 
breed  either  cattle  or  sheep,  that  he  should  make  up  his  mind 
to  the  shape  and  qualities  he  wishes  to  obtain,  and  steadily 
pursue  this  object/  Lord  Somerville,  in  speaking  of  the 
marvelous  improvement  of  the  New  Leicester  sheep,  effected 
by  Bakewell  and  his  successors,  says:  'It  would  seem  as  if 
they  had  drawn  a  perfect  form,  and  then  given  it  life.'  ' 

In  connection  with  the  practice  of  selection,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  breeder  keep  in  view  certain  things,  if  he  is  to 
be  successful  in  accomplishing  his  purpose.  He  must  place 
a  premium  on  vigor  or  constitution,  on  digestive  capacity, 
on  superior  quality,  on  conformation  or  a  proper  relation- 
ship of  all  the  parts  to  the  whole,  and  on  the  strong  develop- 
ment of  the  particular  thing  desired,  such  as  wool,  milk, 
speed,  etc.,  according  to  the  class  of  animals. 

A  policy  in  selection  is  essential.  Whether  one  is  to  breed 
one  kind  of  live  stock  or  another,  one  should  not  only  have 
carefully  considered  plans,  but  should  hold  to  them.  One 
of  the  great  reasons  for  non-success  on  the  part  of  many 
breeders  is  the  lack  of  a  definite,  well-founded  policy.  A 
man  starts  to  breeding  beef  cattle,  and  after  a  time  concludes 
he  prefers  a  dairy  breed;  so  he  disposes  of  his  beef  stock. 


32  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Thus  years  of  effort  may  be  upset  in  a  few  days.  More 
than  one  man  in  a  vainglorious  way  has  stated  that  he  has 
tried  all  the  breeds  of  this  or  that  kind  of  stock,  and  that  he 
knows  all  about  them.  Such  a  statement  is  evidence  of 
superficial  knowledge  and  policy,  and  that  he  will  never 
amount  to  anything  as  a  breeder. 

Intelligent  selection  requires  severe  culling  of  the  herd. 
Men  improve  the  average  of  the  herd  through  the  removal  of 
the  more  undesirable  animals.  Some  persons,  however,  find 
it  difficult  to  do  so,  on  the  plea  that  they  can  not  afford  it, 
or  that  the  misfit  will  do  for  the  present.  Yet  the  more 
uniform  the  excellence  of  the  animals  in  a  group,  the  more 
profitable  the  results  to  be  secured.  George  A.  Brown 
refers*  to  a  practice  followed  in  many  parts  of  Australia, 
of  employing  an  expert  to  cull  and  select  the  breeding 
animals  in  Merino  stud  flocks.  Comment  is  made  that, 
when  the  expert  really  understands  his  business,  this  plan 
has  its  advantages.  A  young  stockman,  by  closely  watch- 
ing the  methods  of  the  expert,  will  gain  a  better  insight 
into  the  business  of  selection  for  stud  breeding  than  he 
could  by  any  other  means. 

Selection  as  a  means  of  securing  desirable  characters  is 
one  of  the  most  easily  applied  practices.  It  is  common  to 
find  certain  recognized  weaknesses  or  defects  within  a  herd. 
It  may  be  shown,  for  example,  in  a  heavy,  plain  shoulder, 
or  a  weak,  narrow  back  or  an  inferior  hind  quarter.  The 
necessary  thing  to  do  under  such  circumstances  is,  first,  to 
secure  a  sire  that  is  especially  strong  where  the  females  are 
weak;  and,  secondly,  to  dispose  as  rapidly  as  possible  of  the 
animals  that  possess  these  deficiencies  in  the  most  striking 
degree.  In  the  most  progressive  live-stock  communities, 
high-class  breeding  stock  is  greatly  valued.  In  fact,  we  have 
no  way  of  accurately  measuring  the  value  of  a  great,  pre- 
potent sire.  It  is  understood  by  those  familiar  with  many 
British  flocks  and  herds  that  the  best  breeding  animals  can 

*Studies  in  Stock  Breeding,  1902,  page  354. 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  33 

not  be  purchased;  they  are  not  for  sale.  It  is  an  old  story 
that  Edwin  Hammond  refused  an  enormous  sum  for  the 
famous  Merino  ram  Gold  Drop,  his  reason  being  that  he 
could  not  afford  to  sell  his  best  ram  at  any  price.  Brown 
states  that  on  one  occasion  a  wealthy  Tasmanian  sheep 
breeder  offered  one  of  the  most  skillful  island  stud  owners 
$500  each  for  the  pick  of  a  score  of  ewes  from  his  stud,  and 
the  offer  was  refused.  These  animals  transmitted  most  valu- 
able qualities  to  future  generations,  in  no  uncertain  manner, 
the  perpetuation  of  which  qualities  was  of  vital  impor- 
tance to  the  owner. 

At  the  present  time  a  great  and  increasing  interest  is 
shown  in  dairy  cattle,  and  the  marked  improvement  in  pro- 
ducing capacity  in  many  herds  is  evident  through  the  use  of 
sires  that  come  from  dams  and  families  notable  for  milk  or 
butter-fat  records.  Suppose  a  man  desires  to  purchase  a 
bull.  Would  it  not  be  a  fine  investment  to  secure  one  from 
ancestry  that  would  result  in  a  herd  of  cows  that  would  yield 
400  pounds  of  butter-fat,  each,  per  year,  as  compared  with 
a  sire  producing  cows  giving  only  200  pounds?  Think  of 
the  difference  in  the  final  gain  to  the  man  and  to  the  breed! 
One  thing  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  effort  to  secure  and 
hold  desirable  qualities,  and  that  is  not  to  breed  with  a  nar- 
row, one-sided  policy,  remembering  that  the  greatest  general 
perfection  of  form  and  function  should  always  be  the  final 
object  of  the  breeder. 

Selection  and  environment  have  much  in  common."  By 
environment  is  meant  the  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  shelter, 
etc.  In  very  recent  years  the  word  "genetics"  has  come 
into  use,  and  will  no  doubt  become  more  common  in  the 
future.  It  refers  to  breeding  scientifically,  depending  upon 
hereditary  transmission,  without  regard  to  environment. 
When  starting  in  the  business  of  breeding,  it  is  very  generally 
regarded  important  that  animals  be  selected  that  are  suited 
to  the  special  conditions  under  which  they  must  live.  While 


34  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

it  is  true  that  domestic  animals  are  adaptable,  the  different 
breeds  are  not  equally  so.  Some,  as,  for  example,  the 
Shorthorn,  seem  to.  thrive  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions. 
Others  are  much  less  suited  to  change.  Large,  heavy  ani- 
mals are  better  adapted  to  the  lower -lying  lands  and  richer 
pastures;  while  the  lighter,  smaller  type  thrives  in  the  hill 
country,  where  herbage  is  not  so  abundant.  There  are  cases 
where  men  have  persistently  held  to  a  breed  under  adverse 
conditions,  and  have  selected  until  an  adjustment  was. 
reached  between  the  animal  and  the  climate  and  the  breeder. 

Brown  says  that  one  of  the  great  triumphs  achieved  by 
the  husbandman,  with  the  aid  of  selection,  has  been  in  stock- 
ing the  "great  thirst  land  of  central  Australia"  with  Merino 
sheep.  When  first  taken  to  that  country,  they  deteriorated 
greatly.  The  wool  was  reduced  to  less  than  half  the  original 
length,  and  became  dry,  very  brittle,  and  open.  Many 
sheep  farmers  gave  up  the  attempt  to  produce  the  Merino  as 
hopeless,  but  others  persevered,  and  finally  succeeded  in 
producing  sheep  with  fine  forms  and  splendid  fleeces.  If 
one  will  carefully  study  breed  distribution  in  America,  it  will 
be  found  that  in  some  localities  certain  breeds  are  selected 
in  preference  to  all  others.  For  illustration,  in  the  southern 
states  Jersey  cattle  and  Berkshire  hogs  are  kept  in  preference 
to  all  other  breeds.  In  warm  climates  a  dark-skinned  ani- 
mal suffers  from  the  heat  less,  and  consequently  hogs  and 
cattle  with  dark  skins  prevail.  Wisdom  would  justify  no 
other  policy  of  selection. 

Feeding  must  also  be  recognized  as  an  important 
factor  in  hereditary  transmission.  It  is  amply  demonstrated 
that  animals  transferred  from  conditions  of  food  scarcity  to 
an  environment  of  abundance  through  successive  genera- 
tions take  on  an  increase  in  size.  The  Shetland  pony  on  its 
native  isles,  subject  to  cold  and  more  or  less  starvation,  is  a 
smaller,  more  inferior  animal  than  that  of  the  same  ancestry, 
but  which  has  passed  through  several  generations  in  the 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  35 

prairie  country  of  America,  where  food  is  most  abundant. 
Men  may  buy  fine  animals  for  their  herds;  but,  unless  prop- 
erly fed  and  cared  for,  depreciation  is  sure  to  follow  from 
generation  to  generation. 

Uniformity  in  type  of  foundation  stock  should  be  most 
carefully  considered.  It  is  a  common  method  for  young  men 
starting  herds,  to  buy  females  without  regard  to  uniformity 
of  type.  The  result  is  that  herds  thus  begun  do  not  attain 
the  standing  they  should,  because  of  variation  in  the  off- 
spring, due  to  the  lack  of  standards  and  of  methodical  selec- 
tion at  the  start.  One  might  far  better  begin  with  three 
females  of  uniform  type  and  excellence  than  with  a  much 
larger  number  of  no  uniformity.  The  final  outcome  with 
the  three  would  certainly  encourage  observers  to  pursue  a 
similar  method.  No  great  herd  was  ever  developed  where 
the  breeder  did  not  lay  special  emphasis  on  uniformity  of 
type  from  the  beginning. 

Rational  selection  is  a  thing  greatly  to  be  desired  on  the 
part  of  breeders.  Too  many  persons  are  influenced  in  their 
selection  by  passing  fads.  In  the  past,  men  have  insisted 
on  maintaining  herds  of  red  Shorthorns  or  solid-colored 
Jerseys,  allowing  these  fancy  points  to  obscure  more  impor- 
tant ones.  Hogs  have  been  bred  with  such  extreme  dish  of 
head  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to  eat  in  a  natural 
way.  Sheep  have  been  bred  with  such  heavy  coverings  of 
wool  over  the  face  as  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  eyes.  These 
features  should  never  obscure  the  vision  of  the  breeder. 
Rational  selection  requires  putting  a  premium  on  constitu- 
tional vigor,  size,  and  quality,  and  then  wisely  giving  fancy 
characteristics  of  color,  head,  or  covering  of  wool  secondary 
consideration.  It  is  not  meant  that  these  features  should 
be  ignored.  In  fact,  they  serve  in  part  as  factors  in  breed 
identity,  but  so  also  do  other  things.  Nothing  is  so  essential 
as  vigorous  constitution,  and  rational  selection  would  natur- 
ally place  a  premium  on  this.  One  may  strike  the  happy 


36  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

medium  on  fancy  points  without  detriment  to  his  herd,  and 
at  the  same  time  preserve  the  desirable  qualities,  thereby 
attracting  buyers.  But  what  could  be  more  unwise  than  to 
neglect  constitution  in  order  to  maintain  some  special  color 
character?  Yet  more  than  one  breeder  has  been  guilty  in 
this  respect,  to  the  positive  injury  of  his  herd. 

A  knowledge  of  breed  character  is  requisite  if  one  is  to 
become  an  intelligent  breeder.  All  our  farm  animals  may 
be  grouped  into  breeds,  crosses,  grades,  or  scrubs.  Any 
improvement  made  must  come  through  the  breed,  or  pure- 
bred line.  Our  breeds  are  the  outcome  of  systematic  selection 
and  improvement.  Present-day  standards  are  undoubt- 
edly higher  than  ever,  and  breeders  demand  more  and  more 


Figure   9. — Shropshire   ewes    heavily   covered    with   wool.     1st   prize   pen 
Royal  Society  Show,  England.     Photograph  from  Sir  William  Cooper. 

merit  in  breed  representatives.  Thus  it  is  highly  important 
that  the  stockman  should  be  quite  familiar  with  the  scale  of 
points,  moulding  all  the  desirable  qualities  into  an  ideal 
worthy  of  the  breed,  and  then  endeavor  to  produce  animals 
that  come  nearest  to  that  ideal.  Such  knowledge  also  calls 
for  a  keen  discrimination  in  selecting  the  breeding  stock  by 
which  the  herd  is  maintained. 

The  selection  of  the  pedigree.  One  can  not  practice 
selection  and  ignore  pedigree.  Persons  familiar  with  lines 
of  family  breeding  recognize  that  more  merit  exists  in  some 


SELECTION  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  37 

than  in  others.  The  men  who  have  been  most  successful  as 
breeders  have  always  refrained  from  purchasing  animals  the 
pedigrees  of  which  showed  undesirable  ancestry.  Auction 
sales  of  live  stock  bring  out  various  interesting  features, 
chief  among  which  is  the  relatively  higher  price  paid  for 
animals  of  recognized  satisfactory  pedigree.  While  it  is  true 
that  in  the  past  many  animals  have  sold  at  high  prices, 
largely  on  the  basis  of  pedigree  and  without  merit  otherwise, 
the  fact  remains  that,  as  a  general  rule,  a  combination  of 
individual  excellence  and  meritorious  pedigree  brings  the 
highest  price.  The  man  who  combines  the  capable  judge 
and  wise  interpreter  of  pedigree  is  qualified  to  select  his 
animals  and  improve  his  herd  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  SAMPLE  SELECTION  OF  QUESTIONS  ON  SELECTION 

1.  What  is  natural  selection? 

2.  What  did  Darwin  say  about  methodical  selection? 

3.  What  is  the  Australian  method  of  culling  and  selecting  sheep? 

4.  How  have  great  sires  been  valued  by  their  owners? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  animal  development  to  soil  and  climate? 

6.  Why  aim  for  uniformity  of  type  in  founding  a  herd? 

7.  What  is  rational  selection?     Illustrate. 

8.  How  important  is  constitution? 

9.  What  part  should  pedigree  play  in  buying  breeding  animals? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  SELECTION 

10.  Make  a  report  on  Charles  Darwin  as  a  student  of  selection. 

11.  What  breeders  that  you  know  practice  methodical  selection? 

12.  Are  there  any  sires  in  your  county  highly  valued  by  their  owners? 

If  so,  what  are  they,  their  value,  and  why  so  valued? 

13.  Give  local  examples  of  dairy  cows  having  official  records  of  milk 

or  butter-fat  production.     Axe  these  the  result  of  careful  selec- 
tion? 


CHAPTER  IV 
PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 

The  pedigree  of  an  animal  shows  the  consecutive  rela- 
tionship of  an  animal  to  its  ancestors.  Of  some  animals  we 
say  that  they  are  pure-breds,  while  others  are  known  as 
scrubs  or  mongrels.  The  pure-bred  has  a  known  pedigree, 
while  the  scrub  has  not.  Men  have  developed  herds  of 


Figure  10. — Hereford  grade  steer,  sired  by  pure-bred  Hereford  bull.  Bred  on 
the  Texas  range,  fed  at  Ohio  State  University.  Shows  example  of  the 
influence  of  superior  sire.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

animals  of  similar  character  and  ancestry  from  wrhich  they 
uniformly  reproduce  the  parent  type,  and  have  kept  careful 
records  of  the  breeding.  Such  animals  form  a  breed.  To 
be  pure-bred,  an  animal  must  show  in  its  pedigree  that  it 
traces  back  wholly  within  the  blood  lines  from  which  the 

38 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 


39 


stock  originated.  If  an  animal  is  not  pure-bred,  it  may 
combine  in  its  pedigree  widely  differing  blood  lines  that  are 
more  or  less  out  of  harmony  with  one  another. 

A  cross-bred  animal  has  a  sire  of  one  breed,  and  a  dam 
of  another.  As  a  rule,  cross-breeding  is  very  undesirable, 
and  should  be  carried  only  one  generation,  and  then  for  the 
production  of  feeding-stock  only.  Some  lines  of  cross-breed- 
ing, however,  have  been  popular  for  many  years.  In  Scot- 
land what  are  known  as  blue-grays,  famous  for  the  quality 
of  their  beef,  are  crosses  of  white  Shorthorns  with  black 
Galloways  or  Aberdeen-Angus.  Another  noted  example  of 
crossing  breeds  in  Scotland  is  the  mating  of  Border  Leicester 
rams  on  Cheviot  ewes,  producing  remarkably  fine  mutton. 
These  two  crosses  are  for  meat  production  only,  and  extend 
but  one  generation. 

A  grade  animal,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  has  a  pure- 
bred sire,  but  is  out  of  a  dam  that  is  not  pure-bred.  One 
often  hears  the  expression  high  grade,  which  means  that  the 
animal  referred  to  is  by  a  pure-bred  sire,  and  out  of  a  dam 
that  contains  much  pure  blood  stock.  A  high  grade  herd  of 
Herefords  would  consist  of  a  collection  of  animals  that 
started  with  just  common  or  scrub  breeding  stock,  but  in 
which  for  some  generations  none  but  pure-bred  males  were 
used  as  sires.  Thus  a  systematic  improvement  of  the  herd 
would  be  made.  The  degree  of  improvement  may  be  ex- 
pressed as  follows: 


1st  generation    =  Pure  sire,  scrub  dam.      f  ho  offspring 


K  blood 


2nd  '  1A  blood  dam. 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

6th 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  in  time  a  herd  may  become  practi- 
cally pure-bred,  although  one  will  not  be  able  to  register  this 
high-grade  stock  in  standard  American  breed  registry  asso- 
ciations. Yet  all  pedigrees  really  start  from  grade  ancestry. 


40 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  value  of  the  pure-bred  sire  on  our  American  farms 
is  far  greater  than  most  people  seem  to  realize.  When  breed- 
ing males  are  not  pure-bred,  there  is  no  standard  of  merit 
in  the  mind  of  the  breeder.  He  is  like  a  ship  at  sea  without 


Figure  11. — This  chart  at  the  left  side  shows  the  influence  of  the  pure-bred  sire 
in  improving  the  blood  through  five  generations,  as  compared  with  the 
grade  sire  on  the  right  side.  Published  by  United  States  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 

a  rudder  or  an  architect  without  a  plan.  Herd  improve- 
ment can  best  be  secured  through  the  use  of  pure-bred  sires 
of  merit.  '  This  necessity  has  long  been  understood  in  Europe, 


PEDIGREES  AND   THEIR   VALUE  41 

but  in  America  a  very  large  percentage  of  our  breeders  use 
only  grade  or  scrub  sires,  which  fact  explains  why  one  sees 
so  majiy  inferior  animals  on  American  farms.  Recognizing 
the  great  importance  of  this  subject,  many  of  the  American 
agricultural  colleges  and  breed  associations  are  doing  every- 
thing possible  to  induce  farmers  to  replace  grades  and  scrubs 
with  pure-breds.  Surveys  have  been  made  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  to  learn  something  of  the  number  of  pure- 
bred, grade,  and  scrub  bulls  in  service.  In  Wisconsin 
breeders  investigated  the  subject,  and  offered  pure-bred  bulls 
at  especially  low  prices,  in  order  to  improve  the  live  stock 
of  the  state.  As  a  result  of  this  special  campaign  it  is  esti- 
mated that  more  than  1,600  pure-bred  bulls  replaced  grades 
and  scrubs  in  Wisconsin,  and  as  many  as  191  found  places 
in  one  county.  In  some  counties  in  the  United  States  the 
people  have  shown  great  interest  in  this  matter,  and  have 
got  rid  of  nearly  all  the  sires  but  pure-bred  ones.  The  Iowa 
experiment  station  conducted  an  interesting  breeding  prob- 
lem to  show  improvement  from  the  pure-bred  sire.  The 
station  bought  some  very  inferior  scrub  cows  from  a  section 
of  country  where  the  people  had  never  used  pure-bred  sires. 
The  offspring  of  these  by  pure-bred  sires,  that  is,  the  first 
cross,  showed  a  great  increase  in  milk  production.  In  one 
case  this  amounted  to  107  per  cent  milk  and  112  per  cent 
butter-fat.  In  the  next  generation,  with  75  per  cent  pure- 
bred offspring,  there  was  secured  an  increase  of  194  per  cent 
milk  and  138  per  cent  fat  over  the  original  scrub  cow  parent. 
This  experiment  should  be  no  surprise,  because  on  every 
hand  we  see  the  wonderful  influence  of  the  pure-bred  sire. 
In  fact,  whatever  of  merit  we  have  in  our  herds  and  flocks 
to-day,  we  need  not  hesitate  to  say  is  due  to  the  careful 
work  of  men  who  have  used  pure-breds  only. 

The  bracket  form  of  constructing  a  pedigree  shows  the 
family  relationship  by  means  of  a  series  of  brackets,  after  the 
following  manner.  This  is  the  most  common  form  in  use. 


42 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


DUROC-JERSEY  BOAR, 
Orion  Chief  13333 


Orion  II,  6539. 


Mabel  22518 


/  Orion  4901 

\  Ohio  Anna  10068 

/  Longfellow  6815 
\  Agnes  X  15250 


In  making  this  form  of  pedigree,  the  names  of  the  males 
are  at  the  top  of  each  bracket,  and  the  females  at  the  bot- 
tom. This  style  may  be  extended  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, the  number  of  ancestors  doubling  each  remove  to  the 
right.  This  pedigree  shows  that  Orion  Chief,  a  noted  Duroc- 
Jersey,  had  Orion  II  for  sire  and  Mabel  for  dam.  Going 
back  another  generation,  it  will  be  noted  that,  in  the  line  of 
male  descent,  his  grandsire  was  Orion  and  his  grandam, 
Ohio  Anna.  On  the  dam's  side,  Longfellow  is  his  grandsire 
and  Agnes  X,  the  grandam.  If  we  now  go  back  another 
generation,  we  have  four  great-grandsires  and  four  great- 
grandams.  This  form  of  pedigree  shows  the  complete  ances- 
try, and  is  the  only  one  generally  used  by  stockmen  in  giving 
the  breeding  of  an  animal.  One  may  find  many  examples 
of  this  form  of  pedigree  in  the  sale  catalogues  of  breeders  of 
dairy  cattle  and  swine.  These  publications  of  pedigrees 
may  usually  be  obtained  on  application  to  advertisers  of 
such  sales  in  live-sjock  and  agricultural  journals. 

The  ancestral  line  of  the  dam  is  another  form  of  display- 
ing a  pedigree.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
pedigree  of  the  Shorthorn  bull  Villager. 

IMP.  VILLAGER  295884. 


Roan;  calved  March  1,  1906.     Bred  by  C.  H.  Jolliffe,  Darlington,  England. 


DAMS 


BREEDERS  OF  DAMS 


Rosy  Cloud  (Vol.  50E) , 

Rosy  Dawn 

Rose  Blossom ...    

Roselinty 

Rosemary 

Roan  Rosebud 

Rosebud 

Rosebud  1st 

Rosebud.  . 


.C.  H.  Jolliffe 
.C.  H.  Jolliffe 
.  S.  Campbell 
.  S.  Campbell 
.  S.  Campbell 
.  S.  Campbell 
.  S.  Campbell 
S.  Campbell 
S.  Campbell 


SIRES  BREEDERS  OF  SIRES 

Village  Beau  295883          Wm.  Duthie 
Chorister  295882  Wm.  Duthie 

Misty  Morning  153603     Wm.  Duthie 
Clan  Alpine  130852  Messrs.  Nelson 

Gravesend  98361  A.  Cruickshank 

Banner  Bearer  96034         Wm.  Duthie 
Borough  Member  64872  J.  Bowman 
Sir  Christopher  (22895)    R.  Booth 
Dipthong  (17681)  A.  Cruickshank 

Scarlet  Velvet  (16916)       A.  Cruickshank 


Villager  is  of  special  interest  to  Shorthorn  breeders,  be- 
cause he  is  one  of  the  most  noted  sires  in  the  history  of  the 


PEDIGREES  AND   THEIR  VALUE  43 

breed  during  the  period  between  1910  and  1920,  being  used 
during  this  time  in  very  superior  Ohio  and  Iowa  herds. 

This  form  of  pedigree  shows  the  bull  Villager  to  be  sired 
by  Village  Beau,  a  bull  bred  by  William  Duthie,  a  noted 
Scotch  breeder.  Villager's  dam  is  Rosy  Cloud.  She  was 
bred  by  C.  H.  Jolliffe,  and  her  sire  was  Chorister,  also  bred 
by  William  Duthie.  The  grandam  of  Villager  was  Rosy 
Dawn;  his  great-grandam,  Rose  Blossom;  his  great-great- 
grandam,  Roselinty;  etc.  This  pedigree  goes  back  ten  gen- 
erations, emphasizing  the  ancestry  of  Villager  on  his  mother's 
side,  with  the  sire  of  each  female  in  this  breeding.  Except 
for  the  sire,  the  ancestry  on  that  side  of  the  pedigree  is 
entirely  left  out,  and  with  only  a  part  of  the  breeding  on  the 
dam's  side  given.  While  it  is  true  that  the  dam's  pedigree 
is  thus  carried  out  much  further  than  in  the  bracket  form, 
what  one  should  know  most  about  is  the  near  relationship 
all  through,  for  at  least  four  generations.  A  Shorthorn  pedi- 
gree of  this  form  shows  to  a  more  or  less  degree  the  tribe  or 
family  to  which  the  animal  belongs,  which  in  this  case  is  the 
Rosebud,  which  started  in  the  herd  of  S.  Campbell,  a  famous 
breeder  of  Kinellar,  Scotland.  In  reference  to  this  pedigree, 
after  the  name  of  each  male  a  number  is  given.  This  indi- 
cates his  registry  number  in  the  Shorthorn  herd-book. 
When  written  in  parenthesis,  it  is  the  English  Shorthorn 
herd-book  number.  Formerly  only  the  herd-book  volume 
and  page  was  given  for  Shorthorn  cows,  but  now  the  females 
registered  in  America  are  given  numbers,  as  is  customary  with 
all  other  breeds.  The  line  of  female  descent  pedigree  is  not 
the  best,  and  breeders  generally  should  use  the  bracket  form. 

The  amount  of  ancestry  shown  in  a  pedigree  naturally 
depends  upon  how  far  back  it  traces  and  its  completeness 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  following  tabular  state- 
ment is  given  by  Davenport,*  which  shows  in  a  rather  strik- 
ing way  the  percentages  of  blood  in  a  pedigree  at  different 
points  for  ten  generations. 

*Principled  of  Breeding.      E.  Davenport,  1907,  page  595. 


44 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Relative  intensity  of  blood  lines  and  approximately  relative   influence 
of  different  generations  and  individuals  for  ten  generations  backwards. 


Generation 
backwards 

Number  of 
ancestors 

Influence  of  gen- 
eration 
Per  cent 

Influence  of  each 
individual 
Per  cent 

1 

2 

50.00 

25.00 

2 

4 

25.00 

6.25 

3 

8 

12.5 

1.56  + 

4 

16 

6.25 

0.39  + 

5 

32 

3.125 

0.10— 

6 

7 

64 
128 

1.5625 
0.78125 

0.024+ 
0.006  + 

8 

256 

0.390625 

0.001  + 

9 

512 

0.1953125 

0.0004— 

10 

1024 

0.09765625 

0.0001— 

Total 

2046 

99.90234375 

The  statement  set  forth  by  this  table  shows  how  little 
influence  is  derived  from  one  individual  in  the  ancestry  ten 
generations  back.  In  fact,  until  recently  a  number  of  our 
live-stock  associations  promoting  and  registering  pure-bred 
animals  would  accept  for  registry  individuals  that  five  gen- 
erations back  showed  impure  blood.  Yet  the  value  of  blood 
lines  depends  also  on  the  character  of  the  breeding.  If  the 
ancestry  contains  the  names  of  animals  of  distinction  within 
the  same  family  lines,  then  it  will  mean  much  more  to  the 
breeder  who  understands  pedigrees  than  it  will  if  the  inherit- 
ance shows  no  family  names  of  value. 

The  merit  value  of  a  pedigree  is  shown  in  the  character 
of  the  records  made  by  the  different  animals  composing  it. 
This  phase  of  the  pedigree  receives  very  careful  attention 
from  the  thoughtful  breeder.  Some  of  the  most  interesting 
examples  of  constructive  breeding  that  have  taken  place  in 
America  in  recent  years,  are  clearly  brought  out  in  pedigrees 
where  record  of  performance  was  ever  kept  in  mind  by  the 
breeder.  The  following  pedigree  of  Sophie's  Bertha,  one  of 
the  great  Jersey  cows  of  America,  is  an  interesting  illustra- 
tion of  such  constructive  breeding. 


PEDIGREES  AND  THEIR  VALUE 


45 


H.  F.  Pogis  40648 

(H.  F.  Pogis  9th  55552. 

Sire  of   15. 

Ex-champion    Jer-  /  Figgis  76106 
sey  sire  with  79  cows  l          19    Ibs.    15    oz. 

Pogis  99th  of  H.  F.< 

in  R.  of  M.,  and  33 

94502  
Champion  A.J.C. 

producing  sons. 

f         u       c       /^u:A* 

Sophie's  Bertha 
313238  
Gold     Medal     cow. 
Ex-world    champion  3- 

C.  Gold  Medal 
bull.  Sire  of  82 
R.  of  M.  daughters 
including  Sophie's 
Agnes,  ex-cham- 
pion, 1,000.07  Ibs. 

Sophie   19th  of  H.  F. 
189748  
World's  champion 
long-distance  cow,  9 
yrs.  tests.  6,356  Ibs. 
lat. 

L>«       11*       rm       Wiiici 

62859 
Sire  of  4  in  R.  of  M. 
Phil's    Scituate 
163456 
A  22-Quart  cow. 

year-old—  14,954.  2  Ibs. 

fat. 

Torono  25204 

milk,    829.54    Ibs.    fat; 
13,242.8  Ibs.  milk,  771 
Ibs.  fat  at  2  yrs.  2mos.. 
16,102.1       Ibs.      milk,' 
875.41  Ibs.  fat  at  4  yrs- 

Lass  66th  of  H.  F. 
271896...  ...< 

!H.  F.  Torono  60326.  . 
Gold    Medal   bull. 
Sire  of  73  in  R.  of  M., 
and     25     producing 

Sire     of     19 
tested  cows. 
Tormentor's  Lass 
59832 

19  Ibs  8^  oz. 

9  mos.                                          Gold  Medal  cow. 

sons. 

Dam  of  Sophie's  Ber-        World's   champion 
tha    2d—  13,393.4    Ibs.        senior     3-year-old, 
milk,    691    Ibs.    fat.             17,793     Ibs.     milk, 

v  H.       F.       Legros      2d  (  Phylis  63409 

198171  J 

9  10.60  Ibs.  fat. 

She    was    a    very  ) 
large   and    persistent  <  H.  F.  Legros  198170 

milker;     her     owner 

does  no  testing. 

In  a  study  of  the  pedigree  of  a  race  horse,  one  should  find 
therein  the  names  of  many  animals  with  speed  records  to 
their  credit.  In  the  case  of  a  dairy  breed  of  cattle,  then  milk 
or  butter-fat  records  may  be  given,  as  well  as  the  records 
of  offspring  of  sires  and  dams.  With  some  breeds,  a  state- 
ment is  affixed  showing  prizes  won  in  the  show  ring.  In 
cases  of  animals  selling  at  high  prices,  these  facts  are  also 
sometimes  inserted  in  the  pedigree.  The  important  thing 
is  to  show  at  different  points  in  the  ancestry  the  richness  of 
the  pedigree  in  production.  At  the  present  day,  one  should 
have  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  pedigrees  of  pure-bred  ani- 
mals that  will  give  more  or  less  specific  information  regard- 
ing performance  on  the  part  of  individuals  in  the  pedigree. 
The  richer  the  ancestry  in  record-making  achievement,  the 
higher  the  price  one  usually  pays  for  the  animal  purchased. 

A  pedigree  score  card  suggesting  the  relative  importance 
of  near  and  remote  ancestors  has  been  proposed  by  Prof. 
F.  R.  Marshall.*  In  this  score  card,  24  points  are  given  the 
sire  (12  for  siring  good  stock,  and  12  for  individual  merit), 
and  24  points  are  given  the  dam  (10  for  her  record  as  a  pro- 
ducer, and  14  for  individual  merit),  with  4  points  on  similarity 
of  type  of  sire  and  dam.  The  grandparents  are  given  a  total 
of  24  points,  ranging  from  four  to  two  points  each  for  records 

*Breediug  Farm  Auimals,  1911,  page  110. 


46  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

as  producers,  and  individual  merit.  The  great-grandparents 
are  accorded  one  point  each  on  production,  individuality, 
and  ancestry.  This  is  an  interesting  score  card,  that  may 
come  into  considerable  use. 

The  accuracy  of  the  pedigree  is  of  first  importance.  It 
may  not  be  accurate  for  two  reasons;  first,  because  of  errors 
in  writing  it,  due  to  carelessness  or  otherwise;  and,  second, 
from  dishonesty.  Mistakes  will  occur  among  the  most  care- 
ful and  conscientious.  The  published  herd-books  of  registry 
associations  have  in  the  past  contained  many  errors,  although 
conditions  now  are  greatly  improved.  Also  honest  men 
have  copied  from  sale  catalogues  pedigrees  that  contained 
mistakes,  and  have  republished  these  errors.  The  most 
unfortunate  pedigree  is  the  "doctored,"  or  crooked,  one. 
Fraudulent  pedigrees  exist,  and  men  have  on  more  than  one 
occasion  been  prohibited  from  doing  business  with  registry 
associations  on  account  of  fraud.  If  guilty,  the  penitentiary 
is  what  they  deserve.  Integrity  is  the  foundation  on  which 
the  pure-bred  live-stock  business  is  based,  and  all  premedi- 
tated cases  of  fraud  should  be  regarded  as  of  criminal 
character,  and  be  punished  accordingly. 

A  study  of  pedigree  is  a  necessity,  if  one  is  to  become  a 
successful  breeder  of  pure-bred  stock.  There  are  several 
ways  by  which  one  may  become  familiar  with  pedigrees. 
Suppose  one  is  to  breed  Jersey  cattle.  Then,  if  in  the  busi- 
ness in  a  serious  way,  one  should  try  to  secure  the  herd-books 
published  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club.  These  are 
the  original  source  from  which  all  Jersey  pedigrees  are  made 
up  in  the  United  States. 

Bracketed  pedigree  blanks  may  be  purchased  from  some 
of  the  larger  associations  registering  live  stock,  and  publishers 
of  some  of  the  special  breed  journals  also  supply  them.  With 
the  herd-books  at  hand,  and  these  blanks,  one  may,  as  a 
rule,  trace  out  pedigrees  without  difficulty,  after  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  method  of  doing  so. 


PEDIGREES  AND   THEIR   VALUE  47 

Sale  catalogues  should  be  saved  by  the  breeder,  for  they 
will  often  be  found  valuable  for  reference,  even  though  some 
of  them  are  carelessly  prepared.  The  register  of  merit 
should  also  be  kept  for  reference,  so  that  information  may 
be  at  hand  regarding  official  records  of  production.  One  also 
should  read  the  current  literature  regarding  the  breed.  Some 
of  the  more  important  breeds  are  represented  by  special 
journals,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  information  con- 
cerning animals  of  distinction.  By  these  various  methods 
one  may  accumulate  much  knowledge  regarding  pedigrees  of 
animals. 

IN  MAKING  A  STUDY  OF  THE  PEDIGREE 

1.  What  does  it  show? 

2.  What  is  a  grade  or  high  grade? 

3.  Explain  the  bracket  form  and  its  value. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  line  of  female  descent? 

5.  How  many  ancestors  does  one  have  in  the  fifth  generation  back? 

6.  How  important  is  the  blood  influence  of  an  animal  ten  genera- 

tions back? 

7.  What  is  merit  value  of  pedigree? 

8.  Describe  a  pedigree  score  card. 

9.  Give  two  causes  of  inaccurate  pedigrees? 

10.  How  can  one  become  familiar  with  pedigrees? 

BRING   TO    THE    CLASS 

11.  The  pedigree  of  an  animal  with  which  you  are  acquainted. 

12.  An  example  of  a  bracketed  pedigree. 

13.  A  sample  of  a  Shorthorn  pedigree. 

14.  Pedigree  showing  merit,  or  performance  of, 

(a)  Dairy  cattle 

(b)  Race  horses 

15.  A  sale  catalogue  showing  prices  paid  for  animals. 

16.  A  pedigree  containing  an  error. 


CHAPTER  V 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS 

A  study  of  the  principles  of  breeding  should  be  made  by 
the  stockman  who  wishes  to  become 'eminent  as  a  breeder. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  one  should  dig  deep  into  this  sub- 
ject, but  a  knowledge  and  application  of  the  elementary 
principles  are  essential.  No  great  constructive  breeder  ever 
lived,  who  did  not  carefully  apply  the  law  that  "like  pro- 
duces like,"  in  the  development  of  his  herd.  The  student 
should  keep  in  mind,  therefore,  no  matter  in  what  kind  of 
stock  he  is  interested,  that  these  pages  are  intended  to  serve 
as  a  help  in  producing  better  and  more  profitable  animals. 
In  this  connection  there  are  certain  things  that  may  well  be 
emphasized  in  starting  out  to  build  up  a  herd. 

Breed  for  a  special  purpose.  The  successful  breeders  of 
farm  animals  have  always  been  specialists.  The  first  thing 
to  be  considered  is  the  purpose  one  has  in  mind.  Some  ani- 
mals, such  as  beef  cattle  or  swine,  are  primarily  for  meat; 
others,  as  some  breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  have  their  chief  value 
in  yielding  milk;  the  draft  horse  is  of  little  use  except  for 
hauling  great  loads;  while  Merino  sheep  are  notable  for  wool 
production.  If  mindful  of  these  things,  and  directing  ener- 
gies rightly,  one  may  not  only  secure  fame  as  a  breeder,  but 
obtain  wealth  in  the  doing.  A  multitude  of  examples  illus- 
trating the  policies  of  successful  stockmen  with  the  different 
breeds  of  farm  animals  might  be  given  to  show  the  results 
secured  through  breeding  for  special  purpose. 

Stick  to  a  well  planned  policy.  The  breeders  who  have 
won  the  greatest  success,  have  been  persistent,  and  have  not 
deserted  the  breed  with  which  they  began.  One  who 
endeavors  to  keep  only  a  class  of  live  stock  that  is  selling  at 

48 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   YOUNG  BREEDERS  49 

long  prices,  closing  out  during  depressed  values,  generally 
fails.  Every  business,  including  that  of  live-stock  produc- 
tion, passes  through  periods  of  prosperity  and  of  depression. 
Sheep  have  far  too  often  gone  through  extremes  of  values. 
For  example  in  February,  1920,  live  lambs  sold  on  the 
Chicago  market  for  about  20  cents  a  pound.  During  the 
next  ten  months  they  steadily  declined  in  value  until  they 
reached  11J4  cents  a  pound  in  December.  These  great  drops 
in  prices  are  always  accompanied  by  big  losses,  and  thus, 
discouraged,  many  men  go  out  of  the  business,  disgusted. 
But  here  is  just  the  time  to  stick.  One  will  have  no  difficulty 


Figure  12. — "Keep  a  few  good  ones."     Photograph   by  Prof.  John  W.  Decker. 

in  finding  plenty  of  examples  to  demonstrate  that  the  man 
who  stays  by  his  sheep  through  the  years,  whether  prices  are 
good  or  bad,  makes  a  good  profit  on  his  long  time  invest- 
ment and  has  a  well  established  credit  among  his  neighbors. 
Keep  a  few  good  animals,  rather  than  many  that  are 
inferior.  One  may  perhaps  make  money  breeding  ordinary 
individuals,  but  the  right  kind  of  reputation  comes  to  a 
breeder  through  his  best  animals.  A  buyer,  as  a  rule,  will 
try  to  purchase  the  choicest  stock.  If  the  breeder  sells 


50  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

these,  he  will  follow  the  worst  possible  policy.  As  has  been 
suggested  elsewhere,  he  would  better  cull  out  the  undesir- 
able animals  and  rely  on  a  smaller  number  of  good  ones  to 
build  up  his  herd.  A  group  of  uniformly  good  animals, 
whether  grade  or  pure-bred,  is  always  an  attractive  sight, 
and  serves  as  an  advertisement  of  the  best  kind.  A  motley 
herd,  lacking  character,  is  not  attractive,  and  hurts  the  repu- 
tation of  the  breeder. 

Pay  a  premium  for  merit  when  purchasing  animals. 
Many  breeders  buy  inferior  animals  because  they  are  cheap. 
From  a  breeding  point  of  view,  one  should  select  animals 
that  combine  individual  merit  and  pedigree.  If  there  is 
anything  in  the  laws  of  breeding  that  has  been  helpful  in  the 
past,  it  is  the  knowledge  that  like  produces  like.  Each  year 
in  the  history  of  a  herd  should  mark  improvement,  which  is 
quite  impossible  if  one  purchases  beasts  of  an  inferior 
character.  The  influence  of  a  new  animal  in  the  herd  is 
usually  far-reaching  for  either  good  or  bad.  One  should  care- 
fully consider  this,  and  be  governed  accordingly.  Some  of 
the  most  profitable  breeding  animals  in  history  cost  a  high 
price.  The  Berkshire  boar,  Masterpiece,  was  purchased  by 
Mr.  W.  S.  Corsa  for  $2,500,  and  proved  to  be  a  very  profit- 
able animal  at  what  was  then  a  record-breaking  price. 

Try  to  become  a  judge.  If  one  is  to  be  a  breeder,  one 
should  understand  the  relation  of  form  to  purpose,  and 
should  be  able  to  select  intelligently  the  right  breeding 
stock.  It  is  impossible  to  conceive  of  a  man's  being  a  good 
breeder  who  is  not  capable  of  judging  his  own  animals 
intelligently.  There  are  many  courses  of  instruction  in  our 
schools  and  colleges  of  to-day  in  which  systematic  training 
in  judging  may  be  secured.  Good  judgment  in  culling  out 
the  undesirable  animals  from  the  herd,  and  in  the  purchasing 
of  new  stock,  is  highly  essential,  whether  for  breeding  or 
feeding  purposes.  Some  practical  feeders  have  the  reputa- 
tion of  shipping  only  good  fat  stock  to  the  market,  and  buyers 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  51 

are  always  on  the  lookout  for  animals  fed  by  them,  for  which 
they  are  very  willing  to  pay  the  top  price  of  the  day. 

Feed  your  animals  well.  One  can  not  purchase  high- 
class  stock  and  keep  them  in  good  form  and  state  of  develop- 
ment, unless  properly  fed.  Many  persons  buy  animals  in 
good  condition,  but  neglect  them  after  the  animals  come 
into  their  possession.  Where  men  must  buy  feed,  they  too 
frequently  neglect  to  give  their  new  purchases  enough  to 
keep  them  in  thrifty,  healthy  condition.  Food  is  essential 
to  maintain  life  and  produce  growth  and  vigor.  It  is  a 
serious  mistake  to  be  niggardly  in  the  use  of  feed.  Further- 
more, no  herd  can  do  other  than  go  backward,  if  the  animals 
are  not  fed  wisely.  Young  growing  stock,  starved  and  neg- 
lected, become  inferior  in  development,  and  in  due  season 
naturally  reproduce  inferior  offspring.  A  true  stockman 
always  enjoys  seeing  his  animals  eat,  and  realizes  that  some- 
thing is  wrong  if  they  do  not  show  a  hearty  appetite. 

Do  not  be  led  astray  by  fads.  Develop  a  herd  that  com- 
bines the  useful  and  beautiful  in  the  highest  possible  degree, 
for  these  two  important  features  naturally  go  together. 
Leave  out  of  consideration  pedigrees  that  do  not  stand  for 
merit.  Remember  that  peculiarities  of  form  often  are  of 
little  real  value,  and  that  it  is. not  wise  to  go  to  extremes  in 
these  things.  Do  not  make  color  a  vital  object  with  those 
breeds  in  which  variation  in  this  respect  occurs.  Whether 
an  Ayrshire  cow  is  one  fourth  or  three  fourths  white,  or  a 
Shorthorn  red  or  roan,  is  a  very  superficial  matter.  General 
conformation,  constitution,  and  producing  capacity  are  the 
important  subjects  to  consider  rather  than  the  color  fad. 

Study  your  local  conditions,  and  endeavor  to  learn  with 
what  class  of  live  stock  you  will  be  most  likely  to  succeed  on 
your  farm  and  with  your  surroundings.  As  a  rule,  it  is  best 
to  keep  the  breed  or  kind  of  animals  most  common  in  the 
locality.  One  should  know,  however,  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
heavier  type  of  animals  is  native  to  low-lying,  fertile  coun- 


52  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

tries.  The  largest  British  breeds  were  developed  in  the 
more  level,  fertile  sections  of  England,  while  the  smaller, 
more  active  breeds  came  to  their  own  in  the  hill  country  or 
mountains.  The  farmer  of  New  England  should  realize  that 
his  farm  may  not  be  suited  to  the  same  kind  of  live  stock  as 
a  farm  in  Iowa.  While  for  good  reasons  Merino  sheep  do 
remarkably  well  in  Ohio,  for  climatic  reasons  they  would  not 
do  so  well  in  the  far  South.  The  markets  are  vitally  impor- 
tant, and  should  influence  one  in  directing  breeding  opera- 
tions. The  abundance  and  kind  of  food  also  play  their  part. 
Compare  the  type  of  hog  of  the  corn  belt  with  the  sort  most 
popular  in  Canada,  where  wheat,  oats  and  barley  prevail. 

Become  acquainted  with  the  families  or  strains  of  the 
breed  in  which  you  are  interested.  It  is  important  to  know 
something  of  these.  Those  breeds  that  are  represented  by 
a  large  number  of  animals,  include  families  of  varying  degrees 
of  merit.  These  family  traits  may  be  regarded  of  much 
importance,  and  may  greatly  affect  values.  Prepotency, 
special  forms  of  production,  adaptability  to  certain  condi- 
tions, temperament,  etc.,  are  features  one  or  more  of  which 
are  stronger  in  some  families  than  in  others.  Old  experienced 
breeders  who  are  regarded  as  successful,  consider  carefully 
matters  of  this  sort,  and  act  accordingly. 

Cultivate  the  acquaintance  of  breeders.  The  man  who 
would  succeed  in  his  business  must  gather  information  from 
every  legitimate  source.  Knowledge  is  a  matter  of  accu- 
mulation. We  accumulate  through  observation  and  per- 
sonal contact.  We  get  inspiration  from  those  who  succeed. 
It  is  a  fine  thing  to  enjoy  the  friendship  of  men  who  are 
leaders  in  the  line  of  business  in  which  we  ourselves  are 
interested.  Darwin,  one  of  the  greatest  scientists,  gathered 
a  fund  of  most  valuable  information  from  the  English  stock- 
man and  farmer,  in  whose  acquaintance  he  took  great  pleas- 
ure. Thomas  Bates,  the  noted  English  Shorthorn  breeder, 
received  much  inspiration  from  his  acquaintance  with  the 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  YOUNG  BREEDERS  63 

Colling  Brothers,  men  who  were  doing  much  for  these  cattle 
while  Bates  was  yet  young.  Furthermore,  co-operate  with 
your  brother  breeders  in  a  generous  way  for  the  promotion 
and  uplift  of  live-stock  interests,  whereby  all  will  be  bene- 
fited. Become  a  member  of  the  local,  state  and  national 
associations  that  promote  the  breed  in  which  you  are  inter- 
ested, whenever  possible  attend  the  meetings  of  these  organ- 
izations, and  be  known  as  a  progressive  among  your  fellows. 
The  compensation  that  comes  from  this  contact  can  not  be 
estimated  in  money,  for  it  is  expressed  in  friendship,  in  help- 
ful service,  and  leads  into  the  larger  field  of  usefulness  and 
efficiency  to  which  every  breeder  with  ideals  should  aspire. 

A  private  herd  record  should  be  kept  by  every  stockman 
owning  a  breeding  herd.  Such  a  record  should  contain  a  list 
of  the  animals  in  the  herd,  giving  their  correct  names  and 
registry  numbers,  dates  of  birth,  names  of  sires  and  dams, 
and  of  the  men  who  bred  them.  A  record  should  also  be 
kept  of  all  animals  produced  on  the  farm,  with  facts  of  their 
parentage.  One  may  keep  a  card  catalogue  with  a  card  for 
each  animal,  giving  the  essential  facts.  There  are  private 
herd-books  especially  arranged,  providing  blank  spaces  for 
the  various  facts  of  importance,  that  can  be  purchased  at  a 
reasonable  price.  If  desired,  one  can  prepare  his  own  style 
of  private  herd-book.  The  records  which  go  in  such  a  book 
are  most  important,  and  all  men  engaged  in  breeding  should 
feel  it  a  duty  to  keep  them  with  care. 

Methods  of  doing  business  with  registry  associations 
should  be  considered  by  the  breeder.  Each  breed  is  repre- 
sented by  an  association  of  men  who  prescribe  the  methods 
of  registry  and  transfer  of  animals  of  that  breed.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  secretary  to  furnish  breeders  with  blank  forms 
which  they  may  fill  out  and  file  with  the  association,  whereby 
they  may  register  their  stock  from  time  to  time.  The  secre- 
tary also  furnishes  the  required  rules  and  regulations  for 
doing  business  with  the  association.  It  is  not  necessary  for 


54  ,       A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

a  person  to  be  a  member  of  an  association  for  promoting  and 
registering  a  breed,  but  it  is  desirable  that  he  should  be.  As 
a  rule,  members  of  registry  associations  do  business  with  it 
for  about  half  the  cost  to  outsiders ;  and  if  one  registers  many 
animals,  one  would  soon  cover  the  cost  of  membership, 
which  varies  with  the  breeds  from  $5  to  $100. 


Of  ENT«Y  IN  THE  HERO  REGiSTEE;  O 


cow 


Figure  13. — A  reduced  size  example  of  a  registry  certificate,  as  issued  by  the 
American  Jersey  Cattle  Club. 

The  identification  of  breeding  stock  on  the  farm  is 
important.  For  this  reason  various  methods  are  used  to 
mark  animals  so  that  they  can  be  identified.  Metal  ear 
tags,  on  which  is  stenciled  the  name  or  initials  of  the  owner, 
with  a  number,  are  in  common  use.  Such  a  tag  is  fastened 
in  the  ear,  a  hole  being  punched  through  which  to  pass  a 
part  of  the  tag.  These  tags  are  often  torn  out  and  lost,  and 
so  are  not  altogether  popular.  The  tattooing  of  numbers 
within  the  ear,  by  means  of  a  special  needle  and  an  indelible 
fluid,  is  also  used  to  some  extent.  Hogs  and  sheep  are  com- 
monly identified  by  notches  cut  in  the  thinner  edge  of  the 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   YOUNG  BREEDERS 


ear,  although  metal  tags  are  also  frequently  used  with  these 
animals.  The  hoofs  of  horses  are  at  times  stenciled  with  num- 
bers, especially  in  case  of  importation.  Sometimes  the  horns 
of  cattle  are  marked  in  a  similar  way.  On  the  ranges,  cattle 
and  horses  are  branded,  and  sheep  are  given  marks  with 
paint,  by  which  owner- 
ship may  be  identified. 
Some  of  our  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle,  especially 
those  of  different  body 
colors,  are  identified  by 
the  location  of  color 
marks  on  the  body.  For 
example,  when  applying 
for  registry  of  a  Holstein- 
Friesian,  it  is  necessary 
to  trace  on  a  diagram 
showing  the  outline  of 
body  form,  the  shape  or  outline  of  each 
marking.  A  copy  of  these  outlines 


Figure  14. — Branding  numbers  on  the  hoof 
of  a  horse.  Picture  taken  in  France  of  a 
horse  to  be  exported.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


black  spot,  or 
is  made  on  the 
certificate  of  registry,  so  that  identification  is  made  easy. 
Every  breeder,  as  a  matter  of  good  policy,  should  have  a 
system  of  individual  identification  of  the  animals  in  his  herd. 
Literature  relating  to  the  breeds  should  be  made  use  of 
by  every  one  who  owns  pure-bred  live  stock.  There  are 
standard  books  sold  by  publishing  houses,  in  which  one  may 
obtain  a  large  amount  of  valuable  information  regarding  the 
breeds.  There  are  also  current  periodicals  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  promoting  the  interests  of  particular  breeds,  which 
should  be  well  supported  by  the  breeders  of  the  same.  Each 
of  the  different  breed  associations  registering  pure-breds, 
publishes  herd-books,  in  which  will  be  found  the  names  and 
numbers  of  registered  animals,  with  information  as  to  dates 
of  birth,  names  of  breeders  and  owners  of  sires  and  dams, 
etc.  These  books  should  be  on  the  shelves  of  the  stockman 


56  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

who  is  a  student  of  blood  lines  or  pedigrees.  Breed  associa- 
tions also  publish  free  literature  concerning  the  breeds  they 
are  promoting,  and  as  this  is  official,  it  is  supposed  to  be 
accurate  and  desirable  information.  Real  live-stock  students 
should  inform  themselves,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  there 
are  many  who  know  comparatively  little  about  the  history, 
development  and  breeding  of  their  own  herds. 


Figure  15. — Southdown  stock  rams  in  England,  showing   numbers  stenciled  on 
the  backs.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

AS  A  MATTER  OF  GOOD  BUSINESS 

1.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  an  established  policy? 

2.  Give  an  example  of  paying  a  premium  on  merit. 

3.  Has  feed  much  to  do  with  herd  improvement? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  a  live-stock  "fad." 

5.  Why  cultivate  the  acquaintance  of  breeders? 

6.  What  advantage  is  there  in  the  private  herd-book? 

7.  Why  be  a  member  of  a  live-stock  registry  association? 

8.  Specify  three  kinds  of  identification  marks  for  live  stock. 

9.  What  forms  of  literature  are  available  for  the  stockman? 

FIVE  INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  DO 

10.  Locate  the   man  who  has  dealt  in  some  one  kind  of  live  stock 

longer  than   anyone  else  in  your  section,  and  report  on  his 
methods,  after  making  him  a  visit. 

11.  Report  on  the  most  uniform  herd  within  live  miles  of  school, 

giving  facts  of  interest. 

12.  Make  a  sample  page  for  a  private  herd  record  and  bring  to  class. 

13.  Secure  and  bring  to  class  samples  of  application  for  entry  blanks 

for  registering  and  transferring  animals  of  some  one  breed. 

14.  Report  on  methods  of  marking  animals  for  identification  as  used 

by  stockmen  in  your  neighborhood. 


CHAPTER  VI 
COMMUNITY  BREEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

What  is  community  breeding?  In  the  origin  and  im- 
provement of  the  breeds  of  live  stock,  groups  of  people  hav- 
ing certain  things  in  common  within  limited  areas  have 
developed  most  of  our  breeds.  A  good  example  is  found  in 
the  development  of  Hereford  cattle  in  England.  All  the 
historical  information  we  have  shows  that  in  the  county  of 
Hereford  in  England  the  farmers  centuries  ago  kept  a  cer- 
tain class  of  cattle  famous  for  beef  production,  that  were  very 
hardy  and  well-suited  to  maintaining  themselves  on  grass 
lands.  The  people  in  this  English  county  studied  their  local 
conditions,  and  during  the  years  greatly  improved  their  cat- 
tle, until  they  became  satisfied  they  had  the  best  breed  for 
their  community.  Very  naturally  some  breeders  were  more 
intelligent  and  more  progressive  than  others,  which  fact  was 
reflected  in  the  class  of  animals  they  produced.  These  men 
found  themselves  working  towards  a  common  end,  even 
though  the  effort  was  free  from  organization.  Thus  in  time 
this  community  became  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its 
herds.  In  Europe  we  find  many  sections  in  each  of  which 
a  certain  breed  has  developed  that  has  seemed  to  be  especially 
fitted  to  the  local  conditions.  Many  British  breeds  are 
named  after  the  counties  in  which  they  originated,  as,  for 
example,  Berkshire  swine,  Shropshire  sheep,  Devon  cattle, 
Aberdeen-Angus  cattle,  Yorkshire  swine,  etc. 

The  importance  of  community  breeding  can  hardly  be 
overestimated,  for  it  always  represents  improvement  and 
progress  in  breed  promotion.  Co-operative  breeding  of  farm 
animals  has  resulted  from  community  breeding.  The  first 
co-operative  movement  for  the  systematic  improvement  and 

57 


58  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

promotion  of  a  breed  was  probably  with  the  people  on  the 
Island  of  Jersey,  who  in  1763,  by  legislative  action,  pro- 
hibited the  bringing  of  other  cattle  to  the  island,  unless  for 
immediate  slaughter.  In  1833  the  people  on  the  island  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  scale  of  points  whereby  they  might  have 
a  common  standard  for  improving  their  cattle.  In  England 
through  co-operative  effort,  as  early  as  1791,  a  book  was 
published  in  which  was  given  the  names  and  breeding  of 
Thoroughbred  horses,  and  in  1822  a  herd-book  for  Shorthorn 
cattle  was  published.  These  first  two  books  of  the  kind 
were  the  outgrowth  of  community  breeding.  Eventually 
co-operative  community  organization  became  a  necessity  in 
promoting  the  established  breeds;  otherwise  there  would 
have  been  no  means  of  standardizing  the  breed  and  through 
well-planned  supervision  of  protecting  its  purity. 

Community  breeding  of  farm  animals  in  the  United  States 
in  an  unorganized  form  perhaps  first  took  place  in  Vermont, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  in  the  breeding  of  Merino  sheep. 
Sheep  husbandry  in  those  states  between  1810  and  1870 
became  a  great  industry,  and  the  Merino  was  the  universal 
sheep.  This  result  was  due  to  the  fact  that  this  breed  or 
type  of  sheep  supplied  the  great  demand  for  fine  wool,  while 
the  wool  from  other  sheep  was  at  a  disadvantage  in  the 
market.  So  famous  did  Vermont  become  as  a  Merino  cen- 
ter, that  in  far  away  Australia,  to  which  many  of  these  sheep 
were  exported,  the  shepherds  supposed  all  Merinos  from 
America  were  grown  in  that  state,  and  they  were  known  as 
"Vermont  Merinos."  The  first  organized  community  breed- 
ing association  in  America  was  the  Western  Reserve  Hol- 
stein-Friesian  Association,  organized  at  Burton,  Ohio,  in 
1905.  Later  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Geauga  County 
Holstein-Friesian  Association.  The  purpose  of  this  organ- 
ization was  to  extend  the  interest  in  cattle  of  this  breed  and 
promote  its  welfare  by  all  proper  means.  In  1906  the 
Waukesha  County  (Wisconsin)  Guernsey  Breeders'  Associa- 


COMMUNITY  BREEDING 


69 


tion  organized,  for  promoting  this  breed  of  cattle.  This 
association  has  had  a  remarkably  successful  career,  and, 
largely  due  to  its  influence,  Waukesha  County  has  become 
the  leading  county  in  America  for  producing  Guernseys, 
while  Wisconsin  has  become  the  leading  state  in  herds  of 
this  breed.  Since  the  organization  of  these  two  community 
breeding  associations  many  others  have  been  started  in 
America,  so  that  now  a  great  movement  is  taking  place 
in  important  live-stock  centers  which  must  largely  benefit 
individuals  and  local  communities  in  which  they  exist. 


Figure   16. — Geauga  County   (Ohio)    Holstein-Friesian  Association   on  annual 
picnic  at  the   Watt  Farm.      Photograph  by  the  author. 

A  well-planned  method  in  breeding  farm  animals  has  not 
been  customary  with  the  American  stockman.  His  herd 
more  often  than  not  consists  of  so-called  representatives  of 
more  than  one  breed,  and  he  develops  it  without  plan  or  pur- 
pose. The  work  he  does  as  a  breeder  makes  less  efficient 
and  valuable  the  live  stock  on  the  average  American  farm. 
One  may  travel  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  United  States 
and  find  countless  examples  of  destructive  breeding  of  this 
sort.  Operating  against  a  host  of  such  breeders  of  farm  ani- 
mals is  a  comparatively  small  number  of  men  who  with 


60  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

fixity  of  purpose  strive  to  produce  pure-bred  animals  along 
well-planned  lines.  Their  herds  and  flocks  are  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  live-stock  business.  It  is  in  groups  of  com- 
munity breeders  that  we  find  the  people  keenly  interested 
in  real  merit,  in  efficiency  of  production,  and  in  what  we 
term  constructive  breeding. 

One  breed  is  better  for  a  community  than  many.  It  has 
been  well-established  in  Europe  for  many  years,  and  more 
recently  in  America,  that  in  those  sections  where  but  one 
breed  of  a  class  of  animals  exists  the  community  is  enriched 
thereby.  The  buyer  has  a  much  better  chance  to  select  from 
many  herds  in  such  a  community  than  he  has  where  the 
herds  are  few  and  far  between.  Buyers  have  shipped  large 
numbers  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  from  Geauga  County, 
Ohio,  and  Guernseys  from  Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin, 
because  they  could  find  them  among  the  many  herds  in  these 
counties.  If  there  is  but  one  herd  in  the  community,  then 
the  choice  is  limited,  and  the  expense  of  a  visit  does  not 
justify  the  buyer.  Only  men  with  narrow  visions  see  no 
advantage  in  many  herds  of  one  breed  in  the  neighborhood. 

Community  breeding  stimulates  prices  and  trade.  In  the 
locality  where  many  herds  or  flocks  of  the  same  breed  pre- 
vail, breeders  take  a  keen  personal  interest  in  the  different 
herds,  and  place  a  premium  on  animals  of  outstanding  merit. 
Here  one  finds  competition  in  purchase  which  naturally  re- 
sults in  stimulating  prices  and  a  greater  activity  in  trade. 
In  one  of  our  best  live-stock  communities  in  America  annual 
or  semi-annual  sales  have  been  held  for  some  years,  and  the 
demands  in  most  if  not  all  of  these  places  has  been  for  more 
animals,  with  a  healthy  increase  in  values. 

Community  breeding  promotes  confidence  in  one  another 
among  the  breeders.  The  primary  purpose  in  breeding  asso- 
ciations is  co-operation.  Working  together  toward  a  com- 
mon end  eliminates  personal  selfishness  and  jealousy.  Sus- 
picion and  jealousy  have  done  much  harm  among  farmers, 


COMMUNITY  BREEDING 


61 


which  is  a  sad  but  true  statement.  Co-operation  is  an 
evidence  of  faith  in  the  good  intentions  or  motives  of  those 
co-operating,  and,  therefore,  is  highly  commended.  This 
spirit  is  better  today  than  ever  before. 

Recognition  comes  to  the  man  with  the  small  herd  in  a 
community  of  interests,  as  would  hardly  be  possible  other- 
wise. In  a  well-established  locality,  where  there  are  many 
herds,  buyers  secure  lists  of  the  breeders,  and  go  about  among 


Let's  Get  Acquainted 

Come  to  the 

First  Annual  Sale 

of  the  Lucas  County  Holstein- 
Friesian  Club  on 

Thursday,  Nov.  20, '19 

At  10:30  A.  M.  Terminal  Bldg., 
Cherry  St.,  Toledo,  Ohio 

80  Head  of  Choice,  High  Class, 
Registered  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle 

will  be  sold  to  th.e  highest  bidder, 
without  reserve.  The  consign- 
ments include  cows,  heifers,  and 
bulls  of  the  best  breeding,  and 
backed  by  men  who  stand  behind 
every  animal  offered.  ALL  OVER 
SIX  MONTHS  TUBERCULIN 
TESTED.  A.  R.  O.  cows  bred 
to  30-lb.  bulls.  Daughters  and 
sons  of  A.  R.  O.  cows.  Some  well 
bred  serviceable  young  bulls,  a  lot 
of  good  young  cows,  and  some 
choice  yearlings  and  calves.  Bet- 
ter plan  to  attend  the  sale.  For 
information  and  catalog  write, 

Keith  C.  Hoover,  Sale  M  gr.,  West  Toledo,  0 

Col.  D.  L.  Perry,  Columbus,  Ohio,  Auctioneer. 


Ohio  Guernsey 

Breeders  Association 

Is  consigning 

75  Ohio's  Best  Guernseys 
at  Auction  75 

Columbus,   Ohio,  June  15,   1920 
A   Golden   Opportunity  to   Buy  the 
Cow  that  Produces  the 
Golden  Product 

Mar's  Noble  Galaxy  (68637)  just  fin- 
ished an  A.  R.  record  of  9,853.0  Ibs.  milk 
and  567.02  Ibs.  fat  in  the  Roll  of  Honor 
Class  E.  E.  milked  twice  a  day  under 
ordinary  farm  conditions.  A  Class 
leader. 

Chilmark  Rival  Antonnette  (58644) 
Sired  by  Langwater  Rival  and  out  of  a 
daughter  of  Imp.  Mashers  Galore,  will 
complete  her  record  by  sale  day  with 
about  11,410  Ibs.  milk  and  580  Ibs.  fat 
in  C.  C. 

These  excellent  cows  together  with  73 
others  of  equal  merit  promising  high  pro- 
duction even  under  average  conditions 
are  features  of  the  Ohio  Guernsey 
Breeders'  Association's  first  annual  sale. 
CATALOGUES  ON  REQUEST 

OHIO  GUERNSEY  BREEDERS'  ASS'N. 

A.  C.  RAMSEYER,  Sale  Manager,  Smithville,  Ohio 

FRED  W.  ANDREWS  &  SON, 
Auctioneers          New  Philadelphia,  O. 


Figure  17. — Samples  of  community  advertising  in  agricultural  journals. 

them  and  inspect  their  animals.  Community  publicity  does 
not  favor  one  breeder  more  than  another.  Each  has  his 
opportunity,  and  is  not  likely  to  be  neglected. 

Expense  of  advertising  in  community  herds  is  less  than 
otherwise.  Joint  advertising  is  often  engaged  in  under  the 
supervision  of  the  secretary,  who  attends  to  publicity  work. 
Some  associations  publish  booklets  containing  the  names  and 


62  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

addresses  of  the  breeders  comprising  them.  One  county 
horse  association  has  published  a  beautifully  illustrated 
pamphlet,  giving  fine  pictures  of  prominent  horses  owned 
among  the  members,  with  a  complete  list  of  the  officers  and 
all  others  belonging  to  the  organization.  Some  members  of 
community  associations  unite  in  co-operative  advertising  in 
standard  breed  or  live-stock  journals,  thus  reducing  indi- 
vidual cost  for  each  person.  Following  is  an  interesting 
example  of  community  advertising  as  described  in  an  article 
written  by  Mr.  R.  A.  Hayne.* 

"At  Lake  Mills,  Wisconsin,  there  is  a  most  unusual  sight,  unusual 
in  size  and  subject,  visible  a  quarter  of  a  mile  away,  and  worth  no  doubt 
to  both  town  and  county  uncountable  times  what  it  cost.  On  the  side 
of  a  large  brick  building  right  opposite  the  square  and  across  the  street 
from  the  town  park,  so  plainly  in  sight  that  you  can  not  go  past  or 
through  the  town  without  seeing  it,  is  a  huge  painting  of  a  Holstein  cow 
in  natural  colors,  and  around  her,  also  plainly  visible  at  a  distance,  are 
the  names  of  fourteen  Holstein  breeders  and  their  locations.  Who  will 
say  that  Lake  Mills  did  not  act  wisely  in  displaying  such  an  advertise- 
ment instead  of  the  famous  trade  mark  of  the  amber  fluid  that  made 
Milwaukee  famous?" 

Fine  herds  and  flocks  bring  fame  to  a  community,  and 

add  to  the  value  of  the  land,  two  important  assets  that 
should  not  be  underestimated.  This  point  has  been  brought 
out  in  a  marked  degree  in  many  places,  as,  for  example,  the 
saddle-horse  industry  in  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  the  Perch- 
eron  in  Ohio  and  Illinois,  the  Guernsey  in  Wisconsin,  the 
Aberdeen-Angus  in  Iowa,  the  Merino  in  Ohio,  etc.  More 
and  more  the  public  will  learn  of  certain  communities  in 
America  famous  for  their  herds  and  flocks,  where  the  oppor- 
tunities for  purchase  are  more  attractive  than  elsewhere. 

Community  breeding  encourages  the  interest  of  the 
young  people,  for  where  practiced  we  find  the  most  progres- 
sive breeders,  the  very  best  examples  of  farm  animals,  and 
homes  of  comfort  occupied  by  an  intelligent,  gentle  people. 
In  a  community  frequently  visited  by  outside  buyers  who 
come  to  inspect  the  herds,  the  boys  and  girls  learn  to  respect 
the  importance  of  farm  animals,  and  become  deeply  interested 

*National  Stockman  and  Farmer,  August  10,  1918. 


COMMUNITY  BREEDING 


63 


in  their  development.  The  future  of  our  live-stock  industry 
is  dependent  upon  the  active,  intelligent  interest  of  the  young 
people  of  to-day  who  are  to  be  the  stockmen  of  to-morrow. 
The  methods  of  organizing  community  breeders'  associa- 
tions will  vary  according  to  conditions,  but  the  process  is 
not  complicated  or  expensive.  Five  or  six  men  may  co-op- 
erate in  a  locali- 
ty, and  agree  to 
promote  the 
breed  they  are 
handling,  and 
help  one  another 
improve  their 
herds  and  sell 
their  surplus, 
with  essentially 
no  expense.  They 
may  not  even 
have  any  written 
agreemen  t 
among  them- 
selves. But,  if  many  breeders  co-operate,  it  may  be  a  conven- 
ience to  have  constitution  and  by-laws,  whereby  they  may 
fully  understand  just  how  they  are  related  to  each  other.  A 
common  annual  membership  fee  is  one  or  two  dollars,  and  an 
assessment  is  made  for  special  advertising,  for  conducting  a 
sale,  or  some  similar  purpose.  In  organizing  it  is  customary  to 
adopt  a  name,  define  the  object  of  the  association,  provide 
for  membership,  establish  dues,  indicate  the  officers  and 
their  duties,  making  amendments,  etc.,  as  occasion  demands. 
Special  provisions  may  be  made  for  holding  periodical  sales, 
etc.  Through  the  extension  department  of  the  agricultural 
college  in  any  of  our  states  one  should  secure  all  necessary 
assistance  in  organizing  a  community  breeding  associa- 
tion. 


Figure  18. — "Community  breeding  encourages  the  young 
folks."     Photograph  by  the  author. 


64  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

CAN  YOU  ANSWER  THESE  QUESTIONS? 

1.  How  did  our  breeds  of  live  stock  originate? 

2.  What  important  step  took  place  in  1763  on  Jersey  Island? 

3.  When    did     community    breeding     first    become  established  in 

America? 

4.  In  what    two    localities    in     the    United    States  and  when  did 

organized  community  breeding  begin? 

5.  Who  are  doing  most  to  improve  our  live-stock  conditions? 

6.  Do  you  think  one  breed  is  better  for  a  community  than  two? 

If  so  why? 

7.  What  will  overcome  jealousy  and  suspicion  among  breeders? 

8.  What  did  Mr.  Hayne  see  in  Wisconsin? 

9.  How  will  community   breeding  influence   young   people-  on  the 

farm? 

10.  To     what     extent     is    organization    necessary    in     community 

breeding? 

MAKE  A  COMMUNITY  SURVEY,  AND  OBSERVE 

11.  To  what  extent  are  mongrels  and  grades  bred. 

12.  If  any  community  spirit  in  live-stock  production  prevails. 

13.  If  any  one  breed  is  pre-eminent. 

14.  To  what  extent  special  advertising  is  attempted. 

15.  How  much  the  young  people  interest  themselves  in  live  stock. 

16.  If  buyers  come  in    on   account    of   superior   opportunities   for 

selection. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

The  plant  as  a  source  of  food  is  of  great  interest  to  feeders 
of  live  stock.  All  our  farm  animals  eat  green  plants  with 
relish,  just  as  a  man  enjoys  celery.  When  plants  are  prop- 
erly dried  and  cured  as  hay,  their  value  for  feed  is  not 
thereby  affected.  All  our  grains  are  products  of  plants;  and 
from  these  directly,  or  indirectly  by  milling,  we  obtain  some 
of  our  most  valuable  feeds  for  farm  animals.  So  the  facts 
are  that  the  plant,  in  one  form  or  another,  really  furnishes 
our  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry  with  about  all 
the  food  necessary  for  growth  and  production. 

The  material  of  which  plants  are  made  is  taken  from 
both  soil  and  air,  but  largely  from  the  soil.  Like  animals, 
plants  must  have  food.  Chemists  say  that  all  matter  is  com- 
posed of  elements,  about  thirteen  of  which  provide  food  for 
the  plants.  The  names  of  some  of  these  are  common,  such 
as  iron,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  There  are  four  others: 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  that  are  also  impor- 
tant. Besides  these,  the  plant  needs  potassium,  calcium, 
sodium,  magnesium,  chlorine,  and  silica.  Most  of  these  ele- 
ments are  found  in  different  combinations  in  the  soil,  more 
or  less  dissolved  in  the  water.  By  means  of  its  roots,  the 
plant  takes  up  the  water  and  so  carries  this  food  through  all 
its  various  parts.  As  this  water  or  sap  moves  through  the 
structure  of  the  plant  cells,  the  food  in  solution  is  used  to 
promote  growth.  Carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen 
are  gases  in  the  air.  The  first  two  of  these  unite  to  form 
carbon  dioxide,  or  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  the  plant  breathes 
in  through  the  pores  of  the  leaves.  This  gas  in  the  plant 
goes  through  a  change,  and  the  oxygen  is  breathed  out,  and 

65 


C6  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  carbon  is  left  to  be  made  up  into  the  solid  part  of  the 
plant  which  serves  as  the  more  bulky  material  of  food. 

Nitrogen  in  the  form  of  a  compound  is  taken  up  by  the 
plant  through  its  roots;  but  plants  of  the  legume  group,  such 
as  the  clovers,  cowpeas  or  soy  beans,  aided  by  certain  bac- 
teria, have  the  power  of  using  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  atmos- 
phere. Nitrogen  is  a  highly  valued  plant  food,  and  the 
farmer  often  purchases  it  in  fertilizer  at  a  good  price.  These 
different  elements  unite  with  one  or  more  others  in  the  plant, 
and  form  combinations  which  are  familiar  to  us  under  vari- 
ous names.  Of  these,  the  following  are  important  when  we 
come  to  consider  the  plant  as  food. 

Water  is  a  combination  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It  is 
found  in  all  plants,  and  even  in  very  dry  hay.  To  get  the 
water  entirely  out  of  the  plant,  it  must  be  driven  out  with 
artificial  heat.  The  amount  of  water  in  plants  differs  greatly. 
Common  timothy  hay  and  red  clover  contain  about  15  per 
cent,  and  ordinary  corn  meal  has  a  similar  amount.  About 
80  per  cent  of  green  pasture  grass  is  water,  and  some  of  our 
roots,  like  the  turnip,  have  90  per  cent.  After  the  water  is 
driven  from  the  plant  by  heat,  what  is  left  is  dry  matter. 
The  water  in  the  plant  is  worth  no  more  than  any  other 
water,  its  chief  value  being  to  carry  food  in  solution  through 
the  plant  from  the  root  to  the  farthermost  leaf. 

Ash,  or  mineral  matter,  of  plants,  we  see,  for  example,  in 
the  ashes  left  from  burned  wood.  When  we  burn  a  plant, 
we  destroy  its  form,  and  all  that  which  burns  and  disappears 
we  call  organic  matter.  That  which  is  left  is  ash,  or  inorganic 
matter.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  amount  of  ash  in 
plants.  Green  or  very  young  plants  contain  the  least,  and 
old  ones  the  most.  Common  corn  fodder  contains  about  3 
per  cent  of  ash,  alfalfa  about  10  per  cent,  and  some  of  the 
roots  as  little  as  1  per  cent.  The  ash  in  plants  is  of  value 
for  food,  if  not  too  abundant.  Hogs  raised  on  feeds  contain- 
ing but  little  mineral  matter,  such  as  corn,  for  example,  do 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  67 

not  have  as  good  bone  nor  do  they  feed  so  well  as  when  the 
corn  is  supplemented  with  other  feeds  containing  more  ash. 
Protein  in  the  plant  is  a  combination  in  which  nitrogen, 
especially,  plays  a  very  important  part,  and  is  combined  with 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  sulphur.  There  are  differ- 
ent forms  of  protein,  but  we  do  not  need  to  concern  ourselves 
about  that  fact  here.  This  substance  is  not  usually  abundant 
all  through  the  plant.  Rough  stalks  contain  but  little. 
Prairie  grass  hay  has  about  8  per  cent,  red  clover  hay  13 
per  cent,  alfalfa  hay  15  per  cent,  cottonseed  19  per  cent, 
and  soy  beans  36  per  cent.  The  growing  plant  usually  has 
its  greatest  amount  of  protein  when  in  bloom.  Seeds  are 
richest  in  this  substance,  for  as  the  plant  matures  it  shifts 
the  protein  to  some  extent  from  stalk  to  seed.  In  some  of 
our  mills  where  seeds  are  crushed  or  otherwise  treated  and 
the  hulls  removed,  the  by-products  produced  are  very  rich 
in  protein.  Cottonseed  meal  and  peanut  meal  are  good 
examples.  Protein,  whether  used  to  feed  plants  or  animals, 
is  the  highest  priced  food  constituent  the  farmer  can  buy, 
when  we  consider  the  price  he  must  pay  on  the  market. 
Protein  is  expensive  because  it  contains  so  much  of  the  valu- 
able element,  nitrogen. 

The  carbohydrates  are  combinations  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  and  contain  no  nitrogen.  These  are  the  most 
abundant  of  our  food  substances  in  plants.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  carbohydrates,  one  known  as  nitrogen-free  extract, 
consisting  mostly  of  sugar,  starch,  and  gums;  the  other  called 
fiber  or  crude  fiber,  making  up  the  woody  part  of  the  plant. 
Most  of  the  fiber  is  cellulose,  the  material  composing  the 
walls  of  plant  cells.  The  chemist  may  dissolve  out  the 
starch  and  the  sugar  from  the  plant  cells;  what  is  left  is  the 
fiber.  The  starch,  sugar,  and  fiber  are  all  carbohydrates, 
but  the  first  two  are  much  better  for  food,  as  they  are  very 
much  more  easily  digested  than  the  fiber.  In  general  we 
see  carbohydrates  all  about  us  in  plants  and  plant  products. 


68  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  most  of  the  stalk  of  corn,  or  any  growing  plant,  consists 
of  carbohydrates.  Common  rice  and  potatoes  are  rich  in 
this  substance.  Many  of  our  hays  contain  from  60  to  70 
per  cent.  This  is,  therefore,  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the  most 
common  constituent  of  animal  feeds.  Animals  can  not  sub- 
sist on  carbohydrates  alone,  although  they  are  very  valuable 
as  a  source  of  heat  and  energy.  The  farmer  must  depend 
largely,  however,  on  materials  rich  in  these  substances  to 
supply  the  great  bulk  of  the  feed  for  his  stock. 

The  fat  in  the  plant  is  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and 
hydrogen  in  different  combinations  from  which  we  find  them 
in  the  carbohydrates.  Fat,  or  ether  extract,  as  it  is  also 
called,  is  not  usually  abundant  in  plants.  One  to  3  per  cent 
is  the  usual  amount  with  many  plants.  The  seeds  ordinarily 
contain  the  most,  some  of  these  like  cottonseed,  soy  beans, 
and  flax  having  large  quantities,  so  that  it  is  extracted  for 
commercial  purposes,  and  the  by-product  rich  in  protein  is 
sold  as  cake  or  meal.  Fat  is  of  special  value  in  the  food,  as 
it  furnishes  the  animal  both  heat  and  energy. 

The  words  roughage  and  concentrate  are  commonly  used 
to-day  by  persons  referring  to  feeding  stuffs.  When  a  farmer 
speaks  of  roughage,  he  means  hay,  corn  fodder,  or  some 
coarse  feed  of  that  kind.  By  a  concentrate,  he  means  seeds 
that  may  be  fed,  or  products  made  from  them,  such  as  bran, 
corn  meal,  oil  meal,  etc.  Any  form  of  feed  for  farm  animals 
that  does  not  contain  a  large  amount  of  fiber,  and  is  rich  in 
protein  or  some  form  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  such  as  starch 
as  it  occurs  in  the  grain  of  rice,  is  usually  regarded  as  a 
concentrate.  Roots  differ  from  roughages  or  concentrates 
in  their  general  appearance,  and,  being  succulent,  contain  a 
large  amount  of  water,  which  often  exceeds  90  per  cent. 
Thus  it  may  be  seen  they  contain  but  little  nutriment.  On 
account  of  their  composition  in  dry  matter,  and  small 
amount  of  crude  fiber,  they  are  regarded  by  chemists  as  con- 
centrates rather  than  roughages. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  69 

The  following  arrangement  will  show  how  the  parts  of  the 
plant  are  related  to  one  another : 

All  feeding  stuffs  consist  of 


Water  and  Dry  Matter 


Ash,  or  Organic    Matter 

Inorganic  Matter  j 


Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat,   or 

j  Ether  Extract. 


Nitrogen-Free  Fiber 

Extract 

The  material  of  which  the  animal  is  made  is  very  similar 
to  that  used  in  building  plant  tissue.  To  begin  with,  the 
body  of  the  animal  is  made  up  of  water  and  dry  matter.  If 
the  water  is  removed,  dry  matter  is  left.  If  this  is  burned 
entirely  so  that  even  the  charcoal  is  destroyed,  the  organic 
part  disappears  and  only  ash  is  left.  The  organic  matter, 
while  made  of  chemical  substances  similar  to  those  found  in 
plants,  consists  mostly  of  protein  and  fat,  with  but  little  of 
the  carbohydrates.  The  composition  of  the  animal  body 
may  be  well  studied  a  little  more  in  detail. 

Water  in  the  animal  body  is  found  in  the  blood,  and  in 
the  fleshy  and  bony  parts.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  ani- 
mal depends  upon  age  and  condition.  Young  animals  have 
rather  watery  bodies.  The  older  an  animal  becomes,  or  the 
fatter  it  gets,  the  less  water  is  found  in  the  body.  For 
example,  a  calf  a  week  old  may  consist  of  60  per  cent  water, 
while  a  fat  cow  four  years  old  may  be  but  45  per  cent  water. 
It  will  be  fairly  accurate  to  say  that  about  50  per  cent  of 
the  body  of  an  animal  under  usual  conditions  is  water. 

The  mineral  matter,  or  ash,  in  the  animal  is  more  or  less 


70  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

abundant,  according  to  age  and  condition.  Old  animals 
always  contain  more  than  young  ones,  and  those  that  are 
fat  less  than  those  that  are  lean.  Usually  we  find  a  little 
over  3  pounds  of  ash  for  each  100  pounds  of  body  weight. 
A  fat,  corn-fed  hog,  however,  may  be  so  short  of  ash  in  the 
body  that  the  bone  will  hardly  be  strong  enough  to  support 
its  weight.  The  ash  in  the  animal  is  made  of  the  same  sub- 
stances as  that  found  in  plants. 

The  protein  of  the  body  is  to  be  seen  in  the  form  of 
muscles,  tendons,  blood,  nerves,  the  internal  organs,  hide, 
hair,  horns,  etc.  Lean  meat  with  no  fat  on  it  is  protein,  or 
nitrogenous  material.  The  fatter  the  animal,  the  less  the 
percentage  of  protein  in  the  body.  In  the  entire  body  of  a 
farm  animal  under  usual  conditions  we  find  about  13  or  14 
per  cent  protein.  In  the  dressed  carcass,  ready  to  be  sold 
for  meat,  we  find  about  17  per  cent. 

The  fat  of  the  animal  body  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  or  of  the  same  chemical  substances  as  the 
fat  of  plants,  but  differing  in  combination.  The  amount  of 
fat  in  the  body  depends  much  on  how  an  animal  has  been 
fed.  If  we  take  a  young  growing  pig,  the  body  may  contain 
only  25  per  cent  of  fat,  or  even  less,  but  a  hog  that  has  been 
well  fattened  and  is  ready  for  the  butcher  may  contain  over 
40  per  cent.  Not  often  do  we  find  less  than  6  per  cent  of 
fat  in  the  body,  or  over  35  per  cent.  In  the  carcass  ready 
for  cutting  up  in  the  shop,  we  find  about  20  per  cent  of  fat, 
under  usual  conditions. 

Carbohydrates  in  the  animal  body  are  but  contained  in 
it,  not  a  part  of  it,  and  so  this  substance  can  not  be  regarded 
as  a  constituent  of  animal  flesh.  Carbohydrates,  however, 
exist  in  the  body  in  two  forms;  one,  glycogen,  similar  to 
starch  in  composition,  found  in  the  liver  and  muscles;  and  the 
other,  lactose,  or  the  sugar  of  milk,  found  in  milk.  Dex- 
trose, another  form  of  sugar,  is  also  found  to  a  slight  extent 
in  the  blood  and  tissues. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  71 

The  vitamines.  Within  the  past  few  years  a  new  sub- 
stance known  as  vitamines  has  received  much  attention  from 
students  of  nutrition.  Attention  was  first  directed  to  this 
nutrient  when  it  was  shown  that  a  disease  of  humans  known 
as  beriberi,  caused  by  eating  rice  from  which  the  husk  had 
been  removed,  would  not  occur  if  the  unpolished  rice  were 
eaten  instead.  Here  was  a  new  substance  of  nutrition.  It 
was  given  the  name  of  vitamine  by  Casimir  Funk,  who  first 
investigated  the  subject.  Other  able  scientists  in  America 
and  Europe  engaged  in  similar  study,  and  it  was  finally 
agreed  that  there  are  three  forms  of  vitamines,  as  follows: 

(1)  Water-soluble  vitamines,  widely  distributed  in  vege- 
table foods,  in  germs  of  seeds,  in  vegetables  and  fresh  fruits, 
but  which  seem  to  be  quite  lacking  in  polished  rice,  patent 
flour,  and  bolted  corn  meal; 


Figure  19. — The  effect  of  vitamines  upon  growth.  The  rat  on  the  left  was 
fed  five  per  cent  cottonseed  oil,  the  one  on  the  right  one  and  one-half  per 
cent  of  butter  fat.  Experiments  by  Dr.  McCollum  and  others  seem  to 
show  conclusively  that  there  is  no  fat  of  plant  origin  that  wilHake  the  place 
of  butterfat  in  nutrition.  Photograph  from  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 

(2)  Fat-soluble  vitamines,  found  most  abundant  in  milk, 
butter,  egg  yolk,  germs  of  seeds,  leafy  vegetables  and  cod- 
liver  oil,  but  lacking  in  the  body  fat  or  muscles  of  animals, 
and  in  vegetable  oils;  and 

(3)  Anti-scorbutic   vitamines,    that   constituent   of   food 
which  prevents  the  disease  known  as  scurvy,  especially  found 
in  oranges,  lemons,  potatoes  and  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Cooking  injures  the  vitamine  value  of  this  class  of  food. 


72  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  remarkable  thing  about  the  vitamines  is,  that  they 
have  never  been  actually  separated  out  and  isolated  by  them- 
selves for  study.  Yet  already  a  large  amount  of  experi- 
mental feeding  of  human  beings  has  clearly  shown  their 
existence  and  the  important  part  they  play  in  nutrition. 
Without  question  the  vitamines  influence  the  nutrition  of 
farm  animals.  This  fact  has  been  brought  out  in  feeding 
experiments  on  swine,  notably  by  Prof.  Evvard,  of  Iowa.  In 
fact,  we  may  assume  that  the  vitamines  in  milk,  green 
forage,  and  vegetables  account  in  part  for  the  great  value 
credited  to  these  substances  by  feeders  of  animals. 

Comparing  plants  and  animals,  we  see  that  the  plant 
obtains  its  food  from  the  air  and  from  the  mineral  matter  in 
the  soil,  from  which  it  develops  a  form  made  up  of  cells  that 
are  largely  carbohydrates.  The  farm  animal  obtains  its 
nutriment  from  the  plant,  from  which  is  created  a  form, 
also  composed  of  cells,  but,  in  this  case,  of  nitrogenous  mate- 
rial. During  the  day  the  plant  sucks  in  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  air  through  its  leaves,  and  holds  the  carbon,  and  gives 
off  the  oxygen.  The  animal,  on  the  contrary,  draws  the  air 
into  the  lungs,  uses  the  oxygen  from  it,  and  then  breathes 
out  carbon  dioxide.  Thus  we  see  that  these  two  great 
groups  of  living  matter,  the  plants  and  animals,  are  of  vital 
importance  to  each  other,  and  have  much  in  common. 
Without  the  plant  or  its  products  the  animal  under  ordinary 
conditions  could  not  live;  while  by  feeding  on  it  the  beast 
converts  the  vegetable  substance  into  a  yet  more  concen- 
trated and  more  valuable  food  material  for  men. 

A  part  of  this  vegetable  substance,  however,  is  not  taken 
up  by  the  animal  body;  but,  following  a  softening  and  re- 
ducing process,  is  excreted  as  manure.  This  excretion, 
placed  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plant,  furnishes 
nutriment  and  stimulates  increased  production.  Thus  the 
plant  furnishes  nourishment  to  both  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdom. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  73 

REAL  FOUNDATION  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  ten  elements,  tell  where  they  occur  and  how  taken  up 

by  plants. 

2.  How  abundant  and  useful  is  water  in  the  plant? 

3.  Discuss  protein  and  its  occurrence. 

4.  Name  two  kinds  of  carbohydrates. 

5.  Where  in  the  plant  is  the  fat  most  abundant? 

6.  What  is  a  concentrate?     Give  three  examples. 

7.  How  much  water  is  found  in  the  animal  body? 

8.  Of  what  use  is  the  mineral  matter  in  the  animal? 

9.  What  percentages  of  protein  and  fat  are  found  in  animals? 

10.  Where  are  the  carbohydrates  found  in  the  animal? 

11.  What  are  the  vitamines? 

THINGS  EASILY  FOUND.    LOOK  FOR  THEM 

12.  Specimens  of  elements. 

13.  Organic  and  inorganic  matter. 

14.  Ashes  of  different  kinds. 

15.  The  protein  of  plants  and  also  of  animals. 

16.  Five  kinds  of  fat. 

17.  Roughage  and  concentrates. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION 

In  order  to  understand  how  food  is  used  in  the  body  and 
the  part  it  plays  in  maintaining  life  and  producing  results, 
it  is  necessary  to  discuss  briefly  the  simpler  features  of  diges- 
tion and  more  especially  as  applied  to  farm  animals. 

The  process  of  digestion  begins  with  the  mouth,  where 
the  food  is  broken  up  and  softened.  The  fluid  called  saliva 
flows  from  small  glands  at  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  the 
mixing  of  this  with  the  food  in  the  mouth  is  called  insaliva- 
tion.  This  fluid  contains  substances  which  act  on  the  starch 
in  the  food  and  help  change  it  to  a  form  of  sugar,  so  that  it 
may  be  absorbed  more  readily.  In  swallowing,  the  food 
passes  from  the  mouth  through  the  esophagus,  or  gullet, 
into  the  stomach.  The  horse  and  hog  have  but  one  stomach, 
but  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  animals  that  chew  the  cud,  have 
four.  The  process  of  digestion,  however,  is  similar  in  all 
stomachs.  The  cow  chews  a  mouthful  of  grass  very  imper- 
fectly at  first  and  swallows  it  into  the  paunch,  which  is  the 
largest  of  the  four  stomachs.  From  here,  after  more  or  less 
mixing,  the  food  is  forced  into  a  second  and  smaller  stomach, 
called  the  honeycomb.  After  it  has  been  churned  about  and 
softened  in  these  two  stomachs,  the  animal  forces  back  into 
the  mouth  as  frequently  as  desired  a  small  amount  of  food 
called  the  "cud,"  for  further  chewing.  The  cattleman  calls 
this  operation  "chewing  the  cud."  After  a  bit  the  cud  is  re- 
turned, and  by  a  special  movement,  passes  into  the  many- 
plies,  or  small  third  stomach,  from  which  it  passes  on  into 
the  fourth,  or  true,  stomach.  While  in  the  true  stomach  the 
food  is  churned  about  and  mixed  with  gastric  juice,  which 
contains  a  little  acid.  These  juices  act  on  the  food,  dissolv- 


THE   PROCESS   OF  DIGESTION 


75 


Figure  20. — The  stomach  of  the  ox.  The  lower  figure  shows 
(a)  the  rumen,  (b)  the  reticulum;  (c)  the  omasum,  and 
(d)  the  abomasum,  or  true  stomach.  The  upper  figure  shows 
by  the  dotted  lines  the  direction  of  movement  through  the 
four  sections.  Reproduced  from  "Cattle  and  their  Diseases," 
published  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


76  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ing  and  changing  it  so  that  it  can  pass  through  the  walls  of 
the  digestive  tract  and  be  used  in  the  body.  From  the 
stomach,  by  a  peculiar  wave-like  motion,  the  food  is  forced 
at  frequent  intervals  into  the  small  intestines,  where  it  is 
mixed  with  other  fluids  that  aid  digestion.  The  liver,  which 
is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body,  and  the  pancreas  both  pour 
fluids  that  aid  digestion  over  the  food  as  it  moves  along  the 
way  in  the  small  intestine. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  from  the  time  it  is  taken 
into  the  mouth  the  food  is  constantly  acted  on  and  changed 
for  use  in  the  body.  Most  of  the  food  digested  is  absorbed 
from  the  small  intestine  but  some  passes  on  into  the  large 
one,  where  the  last  changes  take  place.  During  this  trip  in 
the  body  the  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat  are  changed 
into  different  smaller  and  simpler  particles.  When  ready  to 
be  absorbed,  they  are  taken  into  the  circulation  by  the  blood 
and  lymph,  and  carried  all  through  the  body.  Left  in  the 
cells,  these  particles  of  protein,  etc.,  which  are  called  nutri- 
ents, serve  their  final  purpose  of  building  up  the  body  or 
producing  milk  or  energy.  This  process  of  digestion  and 
absorption  is  rather  complicated,  and  includes  many  changes 
that  need  not  be  mentioned  here. 

The  capacity  of  stomach  and  intestines  is  much  greater 
than  many  persons  realize.  Careful  study  has  been  made 
of  these  organs  of  farm  animals,  and  the  following  figures 
may  be  regarded  as  fairly  accurate: 

COMBINED  CAPACITY  OF  STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES. 

The  ox 337  quarts,  or  about  2  barrels 

The  horse 224  quarts,  or  over  1  barrel 

The  sheep 47  quarts,  or  about  12  gallons 

The  hog 29  quarts,  or  about  7  gallons 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  ox,  with  its  compound  stomach, 
has  almost  twice  the  capacity  of  the  horse,  and  the  sheep,  in 
proportion  to  size,  has  much  more  capacity  than  the  hog. 
The  intestines  of  the  ox  are  about  187  feet  long,  while  those 
of  the  horse  are  but  98,  and  those  of  the  sheep  are  107  feet 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION  77 

long,  compared  with  77  feet  in  the  hog.  The  facts  brought 
out  in  these  figures  show  that  the  horse  and  hog,  with  their 
simple  stomachs,  and  smaller  relative  capacity,  should  be 
fed  more  concentrated,  or  more  easily  digested,  food  than 
the  ox  or  the  sheep. 

The  food  in  the  body  is  used  to  maintain  or  support  life, 
to  produce  growth  or  energy  or  to  promote  certain  other 
features,  as  milk,  fat,  or  wool.  On  this  account  persons  who 
feed  live  stock  should  regulate  the  kind  and  amount  of  food, 
if  they  desire  to  secure  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

The  protein  in  the  food  during  digestion  is  acted  on  by 
what  are  called  digestive  ferments.  One  of  these,  pepsin, 
assisted  by  a  very  small  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid  attacks 
the  protein  in  the  stomach.  The  action  of  acid  and  pepsin 
changes  the  protein  «into  two  more  soluble  forms  known  as 
proteases  and  peptones.  These  with  any  of  the  unchanged 
protein  pass  into  the  small  intestine,  where,  by  the  aid  of 
two  other  ferments,  trypsln  and  erepsin,  all  is  converted  into 
a  still  more  soluble  form  called  amino  acid.  This  latter 
passes  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines  and  into  the  blood, 
and  thence  throughout  the  body  tissues.  The  animal  can 
not  take  the  protein  in  the  plant  and  use  it  at  once  as  body 
protein,  but  it  must  go  through  these  changes  in  the  digestive 
organs  before  it  can  be  used.  The  protein  in  the  food  is 
changed  to  body  protein,  of  which  lean  meat  is  the  best 
example.  To  some  extent  it  may  also  be  changed  into  fat. 
Animals  that  depend  entirely  upon  flesh  for  food  can  live 
on  protein  alone,  if  necessary.  During  starvation,  the  body 
loses  a  small  but  rather  constant  amount  of  protein.  So  we 
regard  this  substance  especially  valuable  for  building  up 
the  muscles,  the  hair,  wool,  internal  organs,  blood,  and  similar 
tissues  that  are  closely  related  to  the  vital  processes. 

The  carbohydrates  in  the  food  are  largely  changed  into 
sugar  during  digestion.  Thus  they  are  more  easily  absorbed 
into  the  body.  There  are  different  kinds  of  sugars,  but  that 


78  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

in  the  food  is  converted  into  glucose.  This  sugar  is  then 
taken  up  by  the  circulation  and  carried  to  the  liver,  where 
it  is  again  changed  somewhat,  and  from  here  is  distributed 
over  the  body  as  needed.  The  carbohydrates  are  largely 
used  in  the  system  to  furnish  the  energy  necessary  in  work, 
and  to  make  fat.  Interesting  experiments  with  animals 
show  that  more  fat  is  stored  in  the  body  than  can  be  sup- 
plied by  the  protein  and  fat  in  the  food.  Dr.  W.  H.  Jordan, 
of  the  New  York  Experiment  Station,  proved  that  carbo- 
hydrates are  used  to  form  part  of  the  fat  in  the  milk  of  the 
cow.  If  animals  are  fed  enough  foods  rich  in  digestible  car- 
bohydrates, the  fat  in  the  body  will  not  tend  to  diminish  in 
amount.  In  other  words,  such  foods  protect  or  conserve 
the  body  fat.  Ihe  carbohydrates  are  also  regarded  as  great 
sources  of  heat  and  energy.  This  phase  of  the  subject  will 
be  explained  a  little  further  on.  Feeds  containing  plenty  of 
carbohydrates  cost  less  for  the  dry  matter  in  them  than  any 
other  feeds,  and  are  valuable  for  filling  the  stomach.  Sheep 
and  oxen  must  be  fed  a  quantity  of  roughage,  as  a  filler,  if 
they  are  to  do  well. 

The  fat  in  the  food  undergoes  no  important  change  in 
the  stomach,  but  in  the  small  intestine,  through  action  of 
the  bile  poured  in  from  the  liver,  and  the  pancreatic  juice,  it 
is  converted  into  glycerine  and  fatty  acids.  The  alkali  in  the 
bile  unites  with  the  latter,  forming  a  soap.  In  this  changed 
form  of  glycerine  and  soap,  the  fat  finds  its  way  through  the 
intestinal  wall  into  very  minute  projections,  known  as  villi, 
through  which  it  enters  into  the  lacteals  and  thence  on  as  a 
milky  fluid  known  as  chyle  into  the  blood  circulation  near 
the  shoulder.  In  this  changed  form  the  fat  of  the  food  be- 
comes a  part  of  the  body  fat.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  usually 
made  from  the  fat  and  the  carbohydrates  of  the  feed,  though 
it  may  be  produced  to  a  small  extent  from  protein.  There 
is  usually  but  little  fat  in  the  roughages  fed  to  stock 

The  mineral  matter  in  the  food  is  taken  up  in  the  small 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION  79 

intestine,  and  goes  through  no  special  digestive  changes  as 
with  the  other  food  substances.  Mineral  substances,  such 
as  lime  and  phosphorus,  are  regarded  as  of  great  importance 
in  building  up  the  body.  Those  foods  that  contain  but  little 
ash  give  poor  results  in  feeding,  unless  the  necessary  mineral 
material  is  supplied.  Years  ago  Professor  W.  A.  Henry 
showed  that  hogs  fed  only  corn  had  bone  just  about  half  as 
strong  as  hogs  fed  bone  meal  or  hard- wood,  ashes  with  the 
corn.  Farmers  give  ashes  or  coal  to  hogs  because  these  ani- 
mals make  a  better  development  when  so  fed.  Without  the 
ash,  the  body  is  not  given  proper  nutrition.  Corn  lacks  ash. 


Figure  21. — The  influence  of  minerals  on  the  development  of  swine.  The 
pig  on  the  left  received  a  ration  with  sufficient  minerals,  the  other  was 
given  a  ration  deficient  in  minerals.  Note  the  difference  in  bone  and 
growth.  Photograph  from  Iowa  Experiment  Station. 

A  hundred  pounds  of  corn  meal  contains  but  a  pound  and 
a  half  of  ash,  while  a  hundred  pounds  of  oats  has  more  than 
twice  that  amount.  All  stockmen  rate  oats  highly  for  pro- 
ducing hard,  strong  bone  in  growing  animals.  The  legumes, 
such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  supply  much  needed  mineral 
material  in  the  food  of  farm  animals  and  so  their  use  should 
be  generally  advised,  especially  for  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
All  food  has  a  heat  value,  just  as  coal  has.  If  burned, 
coal  gives  off  heat;  so  does  food.  All  heat  comes  from  the 
sun,  and  is  stored  up  in  the  plant,  ready  to  be  set  free. 
The  word  calorie  represents  a  measure  of  heat  given  off  by 
food.  One  calorie  equals  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 


80  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

raise  the  temperature  of  1  pound  of  water  4°  F.  The  word 
therm  is  now  being  adopted  as  more  convenient  for  use  in 
referring  to  stock  feeding.  A  therm  equals  1,000  calories. 
If  we  raise  1,000  pounds  of  water  4°  F,  that  measures  a  therm. 
While  food  is  being  digested  in  the  body,  heat  is  produced 
by  the  process.  Some  foods  contain  more  heat  than  others. 
The  difference  will  depend  largely  on  the  amount  of  fat  con- 
tained. Scientific  men  consider  that  the  heat  values  of  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  are  about  alike,  but  that  the  heat 
value  of  fat  is  2J^  times  as  great  as  either  of  these.  This 
fact  partly  explains  why  the  Eskimos  in  the  cold  North  eat  so 
much  food  that  is  nearly  all  fat,  as  the  blubber  of  the  whale. 
Corn  contains  more  fat  than  any  of  our  other  common 
grains,  which  fact  accounts  in  part  for  its  use  as  a  winter 
feed  for  horses,  and  also  is  a  reason  why  it  should  not  be  fed 
heavily  to  stock  in  su'iimer  in  the  warm  season. 

Food  has  an  energy  value.  When  a  substance  is  burned, 
the  resulting  energy  furnishes  power  to  do  work.  So  it  is 
understood  that  what  we  call  a  therm  represents  the  energy 
or  work  necessary  to  raise  1,530  tons  to  a  height  of  one 
foot.  Part  of  the  energy  of  the  food,  to  be  sure,  is  lost  in 
the  process  of  digestion,  partly  because  not  all  the  food  is 
digested.  But  much  of  it  is  saved,  and  this  is  used  to  keep 
the  engine  of  the  body  going.  The  horse  that  pulls  the  plow 
or  hauls  a  load  of  hay  gets  his  power  from  the  stored-up 
energy  in  the  food,  which  is  set  free  in  the  body  during  oxida- 
tion in  the  process  of  digestion. 

The  heat  and  energy  value  of  food  has  been  worked  out 
by  scientific  men,  by  means  of  a  calorimeter.  This  is  a  very 
strong,  round,  hollow  steel  tube.  A  sample  of  a  food  is 
placed  in  this  and  burned,  and  the  amount  of  heat  given 
off  is  measured.  Another  instrument,  called  the  respiration 
calorimeter,  also  is  used,  in  which  a  live  animal  is  placed. 
With  this  the  investigator  can  study  the  value  of  foods,  and 
can  make  a  complete  record  of  just  what  becomes  of  all 


THE  PROCESS   OF  DIGESTION  81 

the  energy  produced.  By  means  of  the  calorimeter,  one 
measures  the  heat  or  energy  used  in  labor,  or  thrown  off  from 
the  body,  or  passed  off  as  breath  through  the  mouth.  The 
application  of  this  knowledge  will  be  found  in  the  next 
chapter.  At  the  Pennsylvania  and  New  Hampshire  Experi- 
ment Stations  there  are  respiration  calorimeters  made  to 
hold  the  larger  animals.  In  these  there  have  been  con- 
ducted very  interesting  experiments  on  the  energy  value 
of  foods  as  fed  to  cattle  under  different  conditions. 

The  palatability,  or  taste,  of  food  is  regarded  very  im- 
portant in  feeding  animals.  If  the  food  is  pleasing  to  the 
taste,  the  animal  will  digest  it  better,  because  the  fluids  used 
in  digestion  will  flow  more  freely,  and  thus  act  more  com- 
pletely on  the  food.  Nice  sweet  hay  is  greatly  relished,  while 
that  which  is  somewhat  mouldy,  or  has  not  been  properly 
ripened,  or  cured,  will  be  poorly  eaten  or  entirely  refused. 
The  animal  that  feeds  best  has  a  good  appetite,  and  eats 
plentifully.  A  great  Russian  physiologist  named  Pawlow,  who 
conducted  extensive  experiments  relating  to  the  effects  of  the 
appetite  on  the  forming  of  the  digestive  fluids  in  dogs,  learned 
that  digestion,  appetite,  and  palatability  all  go  together. 

The  use  of  water  by  the  animal  is  very  important. 
Water  may  keep  the  entire  body  in  a  healthy  condition. 
The  digestive  fluids  and  blood  need  given  amounts  of  water 
to  do  their  work  right,  and  water  is  needed  to  keep  the  intes- 
tines open  and  active,  and  to  regulate  body  temperature. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  farm  animals  need  a  certain 
amount  of  water  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  eaten.  For 
example,  a  horse  or  sheep  needs  from  two  to  three  pounds  of 
water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  consumed.  With  some 
foods  more  water  is  required  than  with  others.  The  cow 
that  eats  corn  silage  will  drink  but  little  water  compared 
with  the  one  fed  the  dried  plant  or  corn  stover. 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  frequently  referred  to  in  discussing 
the  use  of  rations  in  practical  feeding.  This  term  is  used  to 


82  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

express  the  ratio  of  the  digestible  protein  to  the  digestible 
non-protein  substances  in  the  food,  or  the  combined  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  to  the  protein.  In  order  to  compare 
these  substances  on  an  equal  basis,  they  are  reduced  to  the 
same  heat  valuation.  Protein  and  the  carbohydrates  do  have 
the  same  heat  value,  but  a  pound  of  fat  is  equivalent  to 
about  2)4  pounds  of  either  one  of  these.  Consequently  the 
chemist,  in  order  to  place  them  on  an  equal  footing  in  heat 
value,  multiplies  the  digestible  fat  by  2J^.  The  nutritive 
ratio  is  found  by  adding  this  to  the  amount  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, and  then  dividing  the  sum  by  the  digestible  pro- 
tein content.  The  following  example  will  illustrate  the 
method  of  finding  the  nutritive  ratio: 

Oats   contain    10.7   pounds   of   digestible   protein,    50.3 
pounds  carbohydrates  and  3.8  pounds  fat.     Then  the  ratio 
is  worked  out  in  this  manner.     3.8  pounds  fat  x  2l/i  =  8.55 
=  the  carbohydrate  equivalent  of  the  fat. 
50.3+8.55       -58.85 
10.7)  58.85  (  5.5 
53.5 

535 
535 


Nutritive  ratio,  1 :  5.5 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  obtained  in  the  same  way  for  an 
entire  ration,  dividing  the  total  amount  of  the  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  fat  by  the  total  digestible  protein.  A 
nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 5.5  means  that  for  each  pound  of  digesti- 
ble protein  to  be  found  in  the  ration  there  are  5.5  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  or  its  equivalent. 

A  narrow  nutritive  ratio  is  one  in  which  the  amount  of 
carbohydrates  and  fat  is  not  large  in  proportion  to  protein, 
such  as  1 : 3,  or  1:5;  a  moderate  amount  would  be  1 : 8;  while 
a  wide  ratio  would  be  1:12.  Highly  concentrated  foods,  such 
as  tankage  or  oil  meal,  usually  have  narrow  ratios;  while 
coarse  foods,  like  the  common  roughages,  of  which  corn 
stover  or  timothy  hay  are  good  examples,  have  wide  ratios. 


THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION  83 

DIGEST  THESE  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "chewing  the  cud?" 

2.  How  is  food  taken  into  the  circulation? 

3.  What  is  the  capacity  of  the  stomach  of  the  ox? 

4.  What  digestive  fluids  are  present  in  the  stomach? 

5.  How  are  the  carbohydrates  changed  in  digestion? 

6.  What  is  a  "calorie"?     a  "therm"? 

7.  How  can  the  energy  value  of  food  be  shown? 

8.  Describe  the  calorimeter. 

9.  What  has  palatability  of  food  to  do  with  digestion? 

10.  Explain  the  term  "nutritive  ratio." 

TAKE  NOTE  OF  THESE  THINGS 

11.  How  often  does  a  cow  chew  the  cud?     Watch  to  see. 

12.  If   an   opportunity   occurs,  measure  the  intestines  of  an  animal 

that  may  be  killed  on  the  farm.     Report. 

13.  Get   samples   of   what   you    consider  palatable  and  unpalatable 

foods  for  stock. 

14.  Figure  out  the  nutritive  ratio  of  three  plants  or   other    feed 

materials. 


CHAPTER  IX 
FEEDING  STANDARDS:    THEIR  ORIGIN  AND  USE 

The  process  of  analyzing  a  feeding  stuff  takes  place  in 
chemical  laboratories  especially  equipped  for  this  work.  The 
chemist  secures  a  fair  sample  of  the  feed  and  grinds  it  in  a 
mill  to  a  powder  as  fine  as  flour.  He  then  takes  a  small 
sample  of  this  and  analyzes  it  in  the  laboratory.  He  dries 
a  weighed  portion  in  an  oven  and  finds  j  ust  how  much  water 
it  contains,  and  the  percentage  of  dry  matter.  Then  with 
ether  he  dissolves  out  the  fat,  (ether  extract)  and  weighs  this. 
With  other  chemicals  he  also  separates  out  the  protein,  the 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  the  fiber.  Another  sample  of  the 
feed  he  burns  to  learn  how  much  ash  or  mineral  matter 
remains.  Thus  the  chemist  is  able  to  determine  just  how 
many  pounds  of  each  of  these  substances  there  are  in  a  given 
amount  of  feed.  This  investigation  of  the  chemical  com- 
position is  the  first  step  taken  by  the  chemist  in  studying 
the  value  of  foods  for  animals. 

The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  food,  the  simple 
chemical  analysis,  however,  did  not  show.  Then  there  was 
another  step  forward  by  the  chemist,  whereby  he  learned 
just  how  much  of  the  total  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat 
in  a  given  food  an  animal  digested.  After  analyzing  a  sample 
of  the  feed,  as  much  of  it  was  fed  as  the  animal  would  eat  in 
a  given  time.  During  the  experiment,  all  the  solid  and  liquid 
excrement  passed  off  by  the  animal  was  collected,  and  samples 
of  these  were  also  analyzed.  Having  learned  how  much  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates,  and  fat  were  lost  in  the  manure,  the 
chemist  deducted  these  amounts  from  the  total  quantity  con- 
sumed in  the  feed,  and  the  difference  was  regarded  as  the 
amount  digested  by  the  animal.  This  method  was  not  per- 

84 


FEEDING   STANDARDS:    ORIGIN  AND   USE 


85 


feet,  but  it  was  a  great  step  in  advance.  It  enabled  chemists 
to  figure  out  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  digested  under  dif- 
ferent conditions,  so  that  in  time  they  were  able  to  prepare 
for  the  use  of  farmers  what  is  called  "a  table  of  digestible 
nutrients."  This  table  showed  the  total  amount  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  100  pounds  of  different  kinds  of  feed,  and  also  the 
number  of  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and 
fat  in  every  100  pounds.  In  this  table,  for  convenient  refer- 
ence, foods  of  similar  sorts  are  grouped  by  themselves.  For 
example,  roughage  is  all  classed  together,  and  this  is  divided 
into  three  groups:  as  dried  roughage,  fresh  green  roughage, 
and  roots  and  tubers.  Then  the  concentrates  are  arranged 
by  themselves,  and  these  are  also  divided  into  groups.  The 
following  is  taken  from  a  table  of  digestible  nutrients,  and 
is  used  here  to  illustrate  what  has  just  been  explained.  No 
attempt,  however,  is  made  below  to  group  these  feeds. 


Name  of  feed 

Total  dry 
matter  in 
100  Ibs. 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
100  Ibs. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Alfalfa  hay  
Timothy  hay  
Lespedeza  hay  
Cowpea  hay  
Corn  stover,  mediumwa"er 
Red  clover-green  
Rape-green  

91.4 

88.4 
88.2 
90.3 
81.0 
26.2 
16.7 
26.3 
89.5 
90.8 
89.9 
92.1 
90.9 
92.6 
9.9 

10.6 
3. 
8.6 
13.1 
2.1 
2.7 
2.6 
1.1 
7.5 
9.7 
12.5 
31.6 
30.2 
58.7 
3.6 

39.0 
42.8 
41.1 
33.7 
42.4 
13.0 
10.0 
15.0 
67.8 
52.1 
41.6 
25.6 
32.6 

0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
0.7 
0.6 
0.3 
0.7 
4.6 
3.8 
3.0 
7.8 
6.7 
12.6 
0.2 

:3.9 
:15.2 
:7.6 
:2.7 
:21.0 
:5.3 
•4.1 
:15.1 
:10.4 
:6.3 
:3.9 
1:1.4 
1:1.6 
1:0.5 
1:1.5 

Corn  silage      

Corn,  dent  

Oats               

Wheat  bran  
Cottonseed  meal-good 
Linseed  meal  o.  p  

Tankage-Over  60%  protein 

Skim  milk-separator  .  . 

5.1 

This  little  table,  which  is  made  from  a  much  longer  one 
giving  the  digestible  nutrients  in  about  all  the  different  kinds 
of  food  the  American  farmer  is  likely  to  feed,*  shows  that  100 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  contains  91.4  pounds  of  dry  matter. 

*Feeds  and  Feeding.     Henry  and  Morrison,  1917. 


86  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  this  91.4  pounds,  of  the  digestible  material  of  use  to  an 
animal,  we  find  10.6  pounds  of  protein,  39  pounds  of  car- 
bohydrates, and  nine  tenths  of  a  pound  of  fat.  The  nutritive 
ratio  is  also  1:3.9.  Let  us  now  look  further  and  learn  how 
such  figures  have  a  practical  value  to  the  feeder  of  animals. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  food  required  by  an  animal  very 
naturally  depend  on  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  its  age, 
and  use.  No  one  would  expect  to  feed  a  calf  the  same  as  a 
horse,  or  a  sheep  like  a  milch  cow.  Each  must  be  fed  so  as 
to  supply  its  needs  as  completely  as  possible.  As  might  be 
expected,  scientists  were  a  long  time  getting  the  necessary 
information  to  enable  men  to  understand  how  to  feed  so  as 
to  get  the  best  results. 

What  we  know  as  feeding  standards  in  the  beginning 
were  very  simple  and  did  not  have  any  real  value.  The 
working  out  of  useful  standards  began  in  Germany,  and 
German  chemists  have  done  more  than  any  one  else  to  furnish 
us  knowledge  on  this  subject.  The  first  plan  attempted  was 
to  give  meadow  hay  a  fixed  value,  and  then  measure  up  other 
feeds  with  that  as  the  standard.  That  plan  originated  about 
1810.  Some  fifty  years  later,  another  German  chemist  sug- 
gested that  animals  be  fed  special  amounts  of  protein,  car- 
bohydrates, and  fat,  according  to  certain  conditions.  His 
plan  was  not  good,  however,  because  he  did  not  take  into 
account  the  digestibility  of  the  food.  He  was  able  to  analyze 
a  food,  but  he  knew  nothing  of  how  much  of  each  nutrient 
the  animal  digested.  At  that  time  there  was  considerable 
information  of  the  chemical  composition  of  feeding  stuffs, 
but  the  digestibility  of  the  foods  had  not  been  figured  out. 
Then  about  1864,  another  German  chemist,  by  the  name  of 
Wolff,  proposed  that  animals  be  fed  dairy  certain  amounts  of 
digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  such  as  were  actu- 
ally required  by  the  animals.  Wolff  was  able  to  make  this 
proposal  because  he  had  conducted  many  feeding  tests  with 
different  animals,  and  had  learned  much  of  the  digestibility 


FEEDING  STANDARDS:    ORIGIN  AND  USE  87 

of  feeds.  His  studies  resulted  in  what  are  now  known  as 
The  Wolff  feeding  standards  for  farm  animals.  Two 
things  were  shown  by  this  great  scientist.  One  was  the 
digestibility  of  the  nutrients  in  different  feeding  stuffs,  and 
the  other  was  the  amount  of  each  of  these  required  by  farm 
animals  under  certain  conditions.  Wolff  found  that  ani- 
mals that  were  doing  no  labor,  that  were  not  being  fattened, 
neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  required  only  sufficient 
food  to  keep  the  body  and  the  internal  organs  healthy  and 
vigorous.  Such  an  animal  required  what  he  called  a  main- 
tenance ration.  A  young  animal  needed  a  growing  ration, 
and  cattle  intended  for  meat  required  a  fattening  ration. 
A  cow  producing  a  large  amount  of  milk  must  be  fed,  first 
to  supply  the  ordinary  needs  of  the  body,  such  as  might  be 
found  in  a  maintenance  ration,  and,  besides  this,  she  must  be 
fed  still  more  to  enable  her  to  produce  the  milk  of  which  the 
food  is  the  source.  The  dry  cow  may  be  satisfied  on  a 
maintenance  ration  consisting  of  some  form  of  roughage  only, 
such  as  clover  hay,  for  example;  but,  if  she  is  yielding  a 
good  supply  of  milk,  then  rich  concentrates  must  be  fed,  if 
the  increased  demands  of  milk  production  are  to  be  met. 

The  standards  of  Wolff  were  not  entirely  satisfactory  to 
the  Germans,  so  in  1896  Dr.  Lehmann,  of  the  Berlin  Agri- 
cultural High  School,  introduced  some  improvements  which 
became  known  as  the  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards. 

Since  Wolff  first  made  known  this  most  important  dis- 
covery, many  other  chemists  have  experimented  in  the  same 
field.  Both  European  and  American  agricultural  chemists 
have  extensively  studied  the  science  of  feeding,  so  that  now 
we  know  much  more  than  did  the  student  or  farmer  in  the 
days  of  Wolff.  Animals  have  been  carefully  studied,  and 
the  invention  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  has  resulted  in 
some  wonderful  investigations  in  the  fields  of  chemistry  and 
animal  nutrition.  The  work  of  Wolff  was  that  of  a  pioneer. 
For  many  years  Americans  relied  on  analyses  of  German 


88 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


feeds,  and  made  use  of  the  standards  that  came  to  us  from 
Europe.  To-day  we  are  able  to  use  a  table  of  digestible 
nutrients  which  is  based  on  the  composition  of  American 
feeds  as  studied  by  chemists  of  our  own  country.  The  Wolff 
standards  as  improved  by  Lehmann  were  introduced  to 
America  and  for  some  years  had  extensive  use.  Wolff  used 
1,000  pounds  as  the  standard  of  weight  for  animals,  and 
assumed  that  a  certain  amount  of  dry  matter,  and  of  digesti- 
ble protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  were  needed  for  that 
weight  under  given  conditions.  The  animals  were  classified 
in  groups,  as  oxen,  fattening  cattle,  milch  cows,  sheep,  horses, 
etc.  Then  those  in  a  group  were  classified  according  to  their 
purpose;  as,  for  example,  horses  into  light,  medium,  and  heavy 
work;  and  dairy  cows  in  four  classes,  according  to  the  amount 
of  milk  made  per  day.  The  following  figures,  taken  from 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standard,  illustrate  its  arrange- 
ment: 

Pounds  required  daily  for  each  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight. 


Kind  of  animal 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Horses,  light  work  .... 
Horses,  medium  work. 
Horses,  heavy  work.  .  . 

20 

24 

26 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

0.4 
0.6 

0.8 

1:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

This  table  means,  for  instance,  that  a  horse  at  light  work 
weighing  1,000  pounds  requires  20  pounds  of  dry  matter 
daily,  containing  1^  pound  of  protein,  9J/2  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates, and  0.4  pound  of  fat,  the  ration  having  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1:7.  These  exact  standards  of  daily  require- 
ments did  not  stand  the  test  in  American  feeding  operations, 
and  our  scientists  sought  to  improve  them.  As  a  result  of 
the  studies  of  Professors  W.  A.  Henry  and  F.  B.  Morrison, 
of  Wisconsin  University,  new  standards  were  introduced. 

Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards.  These  investiga- 
tors recognized  "that  feeding  standards  are  but  approxima- 


FEEDING  STANDARDS:    ORIGIN  AND  USE 


89 


tions,"  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  impossible  to  feed  an  animal 
in  common  practice  to  the  exact  fraction  of  a  pound,  and 
give  neither  too  little  nor  too  much  food  for  body  require- 
ments. So  they  adopted  the  plan  of  feeding  within  minimum 
and  maximum  quantities  of  dry  matter,  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein and  total  digestible  nutrients.  In  explanation  of  their 
modified  form  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  the  authors 

write  as  follows:* 

"Since  progressive  feeders  throughout  the  country  now  appreciate 
the  significance  of  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration,  the  approximate  upper 
and  lower  advisable  limits  of  nutritive  ratios  for  the  different  classes 
have  been  stated.  To  correspond  with  these  standards,  Appendix 
Table  III  contains  a  column  showing  the  total  digestible  nutrients 
furnished  in  100  pounds  of  each  feed.  Likewise  so  that  one  may  see  at  a 
glance  what  feeds  are  high  and  which  are  low  in  protein,  compared  with 
carbohydrates  and  fat,  the  nutritive  ratio  for  each  food  has  been  comput- 
ed and  given  in  the  table.  With  these  aids  it  is  hoped  that  the 
standards  presented  may  be  of  real  assistance  to  students  and  feeders 
who  desire  to  compute  rations  substantially  in  accordance  with  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  method,  while  recognizing  the  results  of  later  investi- 
gations in  animal  feeding." 

The  modified  form  of  the  WolfT-Lehmann  standard,  as 
applied  to  horses,  compared  with  the  table  previously  given 
in  this  chapter,  is  as  follows: 

Feeding  standards  for  horses,  l,000lbs.  live  weight,  modified  Wolff-Lehmann. 


Kind  of  work 

Dry 
matter 
per  day 

Digestible 
crude 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Light  

15-22  Ibs. 

1.1-1.4  Ibs. 

10  0-13.1  Ibs 

1-8  0-8  5 

Medium  

16-24  Ibs. 

1.4-1.7  Ibs. 

12  8-15.6  Ibs 

1-78-83 

Heavy  

18-26  Ibs. 

2.0-2.2  Ibs. 

15.9-19.5  Ibs. 

1:7.0-8.0 

By  this  we  learn  that  a  horse  at  medium  work  requires 
from  16  to  24  pounds  of  dry  matter,  from  1.4  to  1.7  pounds 
of  protein,  and  from  12.8  to  15.6  pounds  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents, with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  7.8  to  8.3.  Compared  with 
the  old  standards,  we  see  that  this  ration  provides  a  saving 
in  protein,  but  allows  for  an  increased  use  of  total  nutrients, 
with  a  somewhat  wider  nutritive  ratio. 

The  practical  application  of  Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  stand- 
ards has  been  recognized  on  thousands  of  farms  in  America, 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 


90  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  to  the  great  profit  of  those  adopting  them.  Probably 
no  class  of  people  has  studied  the  standard  more  carefully 
than  feeders  of  dairy  cattle,  and  it  is  among  herds  of  this  kind 
that  we  find  Wolff -Lehmann  standards  most  commonly  used. 
It  must  be  understood  that  one  may  not  be  able  to  feed  one's 
stock  so  as  to  follow  the  standard  perfectly,  but  there  is  no 
trouble  in  using  it  in  a  practical  way  as  a  guide.  One  may 
without  difficulty  feed  within  the  limitations  of  the  standard. 
When  the  animal  is  fed  about  right,  according  to  the  stand- 
ard, then  a  balanced  ration  is  being  used,  or  one  which, 
without  waste,  most  perfectly  meets  the  needs  of  the  body. 
Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  balanced  ration  can 
be  relied  upon  for  giving  the  best  results. 

Energy  value  feeding  standards  have  recently  attracted 
attention.  Kellner,  a  German,  and  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby,  a 
noted  American  investigator  of  feeding  animals,  about  1908 
proposed  that  the  feeding  value  of  foods  be  measured  by 
their  energy  contents,  as  shown  by  the  therms  of  net  energy 
they  supply.  These  men  accounted  for  the  loss  of  a  part  of 
the  food  energy  by  the  animal  in  the  mastication  of  its  food, 
and  in  the  operations  of  the  internal  organs,  etc.  The  energy 
left  after  digestion  they  called  the  net  energy  and  this  was 
used  by  the  animal  for  supplying  special  needs.  Armsby  has 
published  a  set  of  figures  showing  the  dry  matter,  digestible 
protein,  and  net  energy  value  in  therms  in  some  of  the  most 
common  feeding  stuffs.  He  has  also  prepared  a  maintenance 
ration  standard,  and  one  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
following  is  made  up  from  the  latter,  to  show  how  this  energy 
standard  is  arranged. 

CATTLE 

Age  Live  weight  Digestible  protein  Net  energy  value 

3mos.  275  Ibs.                  1.10  Ib.                       5.0  therms 

12mos.  650  Ibs.                  1.65  Ib.                       7.0  therms 

24  mos.  1000  Ibs.                  1.75  Ib.                       8.0  therms 

This  table  shows  that  a  calf  three  months  old  and  weigh- 
ing about  275  pounds  requires  1.1  pound  of  digestible  pro- 


FEEDING  STANDARDS:    ORIGIN  AND  USE 


91 


tein  per  day,  and  that  the  total  net  energy  in  the  ration  will 
equal  five  therms.  This  new  standard  has  hardly  been  long 
enough  before  the  public  to  be  well  known,  and  has  been 
used  but  little  in  practice  but  may  grow  in  favor. 

Feeding  standards  for  dairy  cows  have  received  quite  a 
large  amount  of  special  study,  especially  by  Professors  T.  L. 
Haecker,  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  F.  W.  Woll,  first 
of  Wisconsin  and  later  of  the  California  station,  G.  C. 
Humphrey,  of  Wisconsin  station,  E.  S.  Savage,  of  Cornell 
University  station  in  New  York,  and  C.  H.  Eckles,  of  Mis- 
souri and  Minnesota  stations.  Professor  Haecker  was  the 
pioneer  in  this  work,  and,  after  many  years  of  careful 
feeding  of  dairy  cows,  he  concluded  that  the  feed  for  a  cow 
producing  milk  should  be  based  not  only  on  the  daily  yield  of 
milk,  but  also  on  the  amount  of  butter-fat  the  milk  contained. 

The  Haecker  standard  for  dairy  cows  first  assumes  that 
with  a  standard  weight  of  1,000  pounds,  the  cow  independ- 
ent of  milk  production  requires  a  maintenance  ration  of  0.7 
pound  of  crude  protein,  7.0  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and 
0.1  pound  of  fat.  Then  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight  the 
cow  exceeds  or  falls  below  1,000  pounds,  there  is  added  or 
subtracted  one  tenth  of  the  standard  ration.  The  following  is 
a  part  of  the  Haecker  standard,  given  simply  for  illustration. 
Haecker's  Feeding  Standard  for  a  Dairy  Cow. 


Conditions  for  support  or 
production 

Daily  allowance  of  digestible 
nutrients. 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Support  for  1,000  pound  cow  
To  the  allowance  for  support 
add: 
For  each  pound  3.0  per  cent  milk  . 

if            «                «              ^  Q       «            «            « 
((           ((               ((             K  Q      «            "            " 

0.700  Ib. 

0.047  " 
0.054  " 
0.060  " 

7.00  Ibs. 

0.20  " 
0.24  " 
0.28  " 

O.lOOlb. 

0.017  " 
0.021  " 
0.024  " 

Prof.  Savage  has  sought  to  improve  this  ration  some- 
what, by  increasing  the  protein  requirements  per  pound  of 


92  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

milk  from  18  to  20  per  cent,  for  in  his  experiments  he  found 
a  need  for  this  increased  protein  over  that  adopted  by 
Haecker.  American  standards,  and  especially  those  applied 
to  milk  production,  are  a  great  step  in  advance  over  the 
standards  introduced  from  Germany. 

QUESTIONS  ON  KNOTTY  THINGS 

1.  How  does  a  chemist  analyze  a  feeding  stuff? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  digestible  nutrients? 

3.  How  are  feeding  tables  arranged? 

4.  Trace  the  history  of  the  feeding  standards. 

5.  Explain  meaning  of  a  maintenance  ration. 

6.  What  standard  of  weight  is   used   in    feeding    tables?    Suppose 

an  animal  weighs  more  or  less? 

7.  Discuss  the  practical  use  of  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. 

8.  What  are  the  energy  value  feeding  standards? 

9.  How  does  the  Haecker  standard  for  dairy  cows  differ  from  the 

Wolff-Lehmann? 
10.    How  did  Savage  try  to  improve  the  Haecker  standard? 


CHAPTER  X 
CALCULATING  FEEDING  RATIONS 

The  selection  of  a  feeding  standard  is  the  first  thing 
necessary,  when  one  plans  to  feed  live  stock  on  a  scientific 
basis.  The  reader's  attention  has  been  called  to  several  dif- 
ferent standards,  each  of  which  has  certain  commendable 
features.  The  modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standard,  however, 
is  the  one  in  most  general  use  for  horses,  beef  cattle,  sheep 
and  swine,  and,  in  view  of  its  simple  application,  is  here 
recommended.  For  dairy  cattle  the  Haecker  standard  as 
modified  by  Savage  is  especially  good,  and  may  be  easily 
applied  to  a  wide  range  of  production. 

The  method  of  calculating  a  ration  is  very  simple,  and 
can  easily  be  put  in  practice  by  anyone  who  knows  how  to 
add,  multiply,  and  subtract.  There  is  nothing  complicated 
about  it.  The  fact  that  many  farmers  with  only  common 
school  training  figure  out  the  rations  for  their  stock,  is  evi- 
dence enough  to  support  this  statement.  Many  men  feed- 
ing dairy  cows  study  carefully  the  composition  and  cost  of 
feeds,  and  then  figure  out  the  best  rations  available,  that  will 
agree  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  standard. 

THE  MODIFIED  WOLFF-LEHMANN  STANDARD 

The  first  step  in  calculating  a  ration  is  to  find  out  the 
amounts  of  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  total  digestible 
nutrients,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  in  the  ration  one  is  feed- 
ing or  is  planning  to  feed.  In  this  chapter,  only  the  most 
common  feeds  used  over  much  of  the  United  States  will  be 
considered.  We  will  go  through  the  process  of  figuring  out 
the  ration  for  fattening  a  two-year-old  steer  weighing  1,200 
pounds,  during  the  first  period  of  50  to  60  days.  (See  feed- 
ing standard,  Table  B,  Appendix.)  According  to  the  stand- 

93 


94 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ard,  a  steer  weighing  1,000  pounds  would  require  from  22.0 
to  25.0  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.0  to  2.3  pounds  of  protein, 
18.0  to  20.0  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients,  and  with  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1:7.0  to  1:7.8.  Multiplying  these  requirements 
for  1,000  by  1.2,  in  order  to  determine  the  amount  needed 
for  the  1,200-pound  steer,  we  find  that  he  will  require  26.4 
to  30.0  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.4  to  2.76  pounds  of  protein, 
and  21.6  to  24.0  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients.  Let  us  plan 
to  feed  this  steer  a  daily  ration  of  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay, 
30  pounds  of  corn  silage,  10  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal, 
and  3  pounds  of  bran.  To  use  a  good  system  in  the  start- 
ing of  the  work,  we  will  arrange  the  different  parts  in  proper 
order  for  study,  which  is  as  follows: 

Ration  for  1,200-pound  Fattening  Steer— First  Period 


Feeds. 

Dry 
matter 

Digesti- 
ble 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs 

Corn  silage,  30  Ibs 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  10  Ibs. 
Bran  3  Ibs 

The  second  step  in  calculating  the  ration  will  be  to  find 
out  how  much  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  and  total 
digestible  nutrients,  occur  in  each  of  the  amounts  of  these 
different  feeds,  and  write  these  figures  in  the  proper  blank 
places  in  the  table.  Turning  now  to  Table  A  in  the  Appen- 
dix, you  will  find  shown  the  amount  of  dry  matter  and' 
digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of  a  number  of  differ- 
ent feeding  stuffs.  The  composition  of  each  to  be  fed  this 
steer  can  be  easily  found.  Let  us  take  alfalfa  hay  for  our 
first  calculation. 


100  Ibs.  contain 
Then     10    Ibs.  contain 


ALFALFA  HAY 

Dry  matter 
91.4  Ibs. 
9.14  Ibs. 


Protein 
10.6  Ibs. 
1.06  Ibs. 


Total  nutrients 
51.6  Ibs. 
5. 16  Ibs. 


CALCULATING  FEEDING  RATIONS 


95 


Figuring  the  corn  silage  next,  we  find  that 

Dry  matter  Protein  Total  nutrients 

100  Ibs.  contain        26.3  Ibs.  1.1  Ib.  17.7  Ibs. 

Then      30  Ibs.  contain          7.89  Ibs.  0.33  Ib.  5.31  Ibs. 

Figuring  the  Corn  and  cob  meal  next,  we  find  that 

Dry  matter  Protein  Total  nutrients 

100  Ibs.  contain        89.6  Ibs.  6.1    Ibs.  78.1  Ibs. 

Then      10  Ibs.  contain          8.96  Ibs.  0.61  Ib.  7.81  Ib. 

Coming  last  to  bran,  we  learn  that 

Dry  matter  Protein  Total  nutrients 

100  Ibs.  contain         89.9  Ibs.  12.5  Ibs.  60.9  Ibs. 

Then        3  Ibs.  contain          2.70  Ibs.  0.37  Ib.  1.82  Ibs. 

If  we  have  copied  these  figures  as  worked  out,  into  the 
blank  places  arranged  for  them  in  the  table  on  page  94, 
then  we  shall  have  the  following,  after  we  have  added  up  the 
totals. 

Ration  for  1,200-pound  Fattening  Steer — Partly  Computed 


Feeds 

Dry 

matter 

Digesti- 
ble 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Alfalfa  hay,  10  Ibs  
Corn  silage,  30  Ibs  

9.14   Ibs. 
7.89     ' 

1.06   Ibs. 
0.33     " 

5.16   Ibs. 
5.31      ' 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  10  Ibs.  . 
Bran,  3  Ibs. 

8.96     ' 
2.70     ' 

0.61      " 
0.37      " 

7.81      ' 
1.82      ' 

Total 

28.69     ' 

2.37  " 

20.10      ' 

1:8.5 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard  .  . 

26.4-30  ' 

2.4-2.76  " 

21.6-24  ' 

1  :7-l  :7.8 

A  shortage  of  .... 

0.03-0.39" 

1.5-3.9  " 

The  above  table  shows  that  the  proposed  ration,  com- 
pared with  the  standard,  is  satisfactory  in  the  amount  of  dry 
matter,  but  is  from  0.03  to  0.39  Ib.  short  in  digestible  pro- 
tein, and  lacks  from  1.5  to  3.9  pounds  of  total  digestible 
nutrients,  with  a  slightly  wider  nutritive  ratio  than  the 
standard  calls  for. 

The  third  step  in  computing  the  ration  will  be  to  correct 
or  improve  it  so  that  it  will  compare  favorably  with  the 
standard.  Not  much  is  really  necessary  to  improve  this 
ration,  for  the  dry  matter  already  supplied  is  properly 
adjusted,  and  there  is  but  a  small  shortage  in  digestible  pro- 
tein. We  should,  however,  have  at  least  a  pound  and  a  half 


96 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


more  digestible  nutrients,  and  make  the  nutritive  ratio  cor- 
respond closer  to  the  standard.  We  might  use  a  small 
amount  of  some  commercial  feed  stuff,  to  adjust  this  ration, 
but  suppose  we  use  a  common  home-grown  product,  and  add 
three  pounds  of  oats  and  note  the  result.  Turning  to  the 
table  of  the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs,  Table  A,  Ap- 
pendix, we  find  the  following  relating  to  oats. 

Oats  Dry  matter  Digestible  Total  digestible 

protein  nutrients 

100  Ibs.  contain          90.3  Ibs.  9.7  Ibs.  70.4  Ibs. 

Then        3  Ibs.  contain  2.72  Ibs.  .29  Ibs.  2.11  Ibs. 

Adding  this  to  the  total  in  the  original  ration,  we  have 
the  following: 


Dry 

matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Total  dig. 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Total  original  
3  Ibs.  oats  

28.69  Ibs. 
2.72    " 

2.37   Ibs. 
.29     " 

20.10  Ibs. 
2.11    " 

1:8.5 

Total  

31.41    " 

266     " 

22  21    " 

1:8 

Standard  

26.4-30  " 

2.4-2.76" 

21.6-24" 

1:7.1-7.8 

Excess  or  deficit  

+  1.41  " 

Balanced 

Balanced 

This  ration  contains  a  slight  excess  of  dry  matter  which 
is  not  at  all  serious,  while  it  is  actually  balanced  in  its  nutri- 
ents, and  very  nearly  meets  the  nutritive  ratio  standard. 
We  may,  therefore,  regard  this  ration  properly  calculated 
and  corrected  to  suit  the  animal's  needs.  It  also  has  the 
advantage  of  consisting  of  feeds  easily  produced  or  obtained 
over  much  of  this  country. 

COMPUTING  STANDARDS  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  feeding  standards  for  dairy  cattle  as  previously 
stated,  are  based  on  the  yield  of  milk  as  well  as  the  weight 
of  the  animal.  Haecker  adopted  a  standard  in  which  he 
first  established  a  maintenance  ration  for  the  support  of  a 
1,000-pound  cow,  consisting  of  0.7  pound  digestible  protein, 
7.0  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  0.1  pound  digestible 


CALCULATING  FEEDING  RATIONS  97 

fat.  He  then  allowed  certain  amounts  of  these  nutrients  in 
the  ration,  additional  to  that  for  maintenance,  based  on  each 
pound  of  milk  of  definite  butter-fat  composition.  The  stand- 
ard proposed  by  Haecker  was  a  great  step  forward,  but 
some  investigators  after  extensive  trials  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  nutrients  recommended  fell  a  trifle  short  of 
real  requirements.  Haecker's  table  was  changed  slightly  by 
Savage,  who  approved  of  the  maintenance  standard,  but 
who  increased  the  percentage  of  protein  required,  from  18 
to  20  per  cent.  Savage  also  combined  the  total  nutrients, 
instead  of  computing  carbohydrates  and  fat  separately.  In 
their  modified  form  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard,  Henry 
and  Morrison  arrange  for  dairy  cattle  by  adopting  the 
quantities  of  protein  given  in  both  Haecker  and  Savage 
standards,  as  for  example  0.054 — 0.065  digestible  protein  for 
milk  with  4.0  per  cent  fat.  In  this  case,  Haecker  recom- 
mends 0.054  pound  protein  to  be  fed  for  each  pound  of  4.0 
per  cent  milk  produced,  while  Savage  recommends  0.065 
pound.  The  person  figuring  out  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow 
will  do  well  to  see  that  the  feed  contains  enough  protein 
to  come  within  the  variations  of  the  standard  and  the  ad- 
justment of  this  nutrient  may  well  receive  first  consideration. 
There  is  no  fixed  standard  for  dry  matter  adopted  in  this 
case,  but  cows  producing  one  pound  of  fat  a  day  should 
receive  from  21  to  25  pounds  of  dry  matter  for  1,000  pounds 
live  weight. 

A  reference  to  Table  B,  Appendix,  will  show  the  modi- 
fied Wolff-Lehmann  standard  given  by  Henry  and  Mor- 
rison.* The  method  of  computing  the  amounts  of  dry 
matter,  digestible  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients, 
applies  the  same  in  this  case  as  in  the  example  given  with 
beef  cattle.  One  must  make  a  special  computation,  how- 
ever, to  establish  one's  standard,  based  on  the  number  of 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  and  its  fat  content,  as  previously 
stated.  This  is  determined  as  follows: 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 
4 


98  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

As  an  example,  we  will  take  the  case  of  a  cow  weighing 
1,200  pounds,  producing  30  pounds  a  day  of  milk  testing  4.0 
per  cent  fat.  Digestible  Total  digestible 

A  1,000-pound  cow  requires  for  t>rotein  nutrients 

maintenance 0.70  Ib.  7.925  Ibs. 

A  1,200-pound  cow  requires  for 

maintenance 0.84  Ib.  9.510  Ibs. 

If  one  pound  of  4.0  per  cent  milk  requires  0.054 — 0.065 
pound  protein,  then  30  pounds  would  require  30  times  0.054 
— 0.065  which  would  be  1.62 — 1.95  pounds  protein. 

If  one  pound  of  4.0  per  cent  milk  requires  0.346  pound 
digestive  nutrients,  then  30  pounds  would  require  30  times 
0.346,  or  10.38. 

Adding  these  to  the  maintenance  ration,  we  find  that  the 

required  standard  would  be:       DigestiUe  Total  digestible 

protein  nutrients 

For  maintenance  1,200-lb.  dairy  cow.  .0.84  Ib.  9.51  Ibs. 

To  meet  demands  30  Ibs.  4.0%  milk..  1.62-1.95  Ibs.         10.38  Ibs. 

Total  required 2.46-2.79  Ibs.          19.89  Ibs. 

Thus  we  ascertain  that  a  1,200-pound  cow  producing  30 
pounds  of  milk  a  day  containing  4.0  per  cent  fat  should 
receive  daily  a  ration  containing  from  25  to  30  pounds  of 
dry  matter,  2.46  to  2.79  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  and 
19.89  pounds  total  digestible  nutrients,  with  a  nutritive  ratio 
from  1:7  to  1:8. 

The  adjustment  of  rations  to  the  standard  is  not  usually 
difficult.  An  increase  in  dry  matter  and  carbohydrates  is 
easily  secured  with  the  hays  or  most  of  our  common  feed 
stuffs.  If  a  ration  needs  some  adjustment  in  the  protein,  then 
some  concentrate  such  as  soy  beans,  cottonseed  meal,  lin- 
seed oil  meal,  or  tankage  may  be  selected.  The  cost  of  the 
feed  is  an  important  matter,  and  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered. Some  feeding  stuffs,  like  cottonseed  meal,  oil  meal, 
or  tankage,  that  are  not  common  in  all  localities,  are  easily 
purchased  and  shipped  in  by  freight,  and  may  often  be  used 
with  much  advantage  and  profit.  These  are  high-class  con- 


CALCULATING  FEEDING  RATION 8  99 

centrates,  and  are  extensively  purchased  by  feeders  of  stock 
in  countries  where  but  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  feed 
is  grown,  as  in  England  and  Holland,  for  example. 

SOME  RATION  PROBLEMS 

1.  Given  a  1,000-pound  horse  at  medium  work.  He  is  fed  10  pounds  oats, 

10  pounds  timothy  hay,  and  10  pounds  ear  corn  a  day.  How  does 
this  agree  with  the  Wolff- Lehmann  standard? 

2.  A  steer  weighing  1,500  pounds,  nearly  fattened,  consumes  daily  20 

pounds    clover    hay,     18    pounds    corn-and-cob    meal,    and   5 
pounds  cottonseed  meal.     Is  this  ration  satisfactory? 

3.  Make  up  a  ration  for  a  500-pound  brood  sow,  and  figure  out  how  it 

compares  with  the  standard. 

4.  Feed  2  pounds  alfalfa  hay  a  day  to  a  fattening  sheep  weighing  100 

pounds.     How  much  and  what  kind  of  grain  will  you  feed  to 
adjust  the  ration  to  standard? 


CHAPTER  XI 
COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE 

The  coarse  feeds,  or  roughage,  include  the  grasses  and 
legumes  of  different  kinds,  the  cereals  (as  forage),  straws, 
silage,  roots,  rape,  cabbage,  or  any  similar  feeds,  whether 
green  or  dried  as  hay.  Anything  of  a  bulky  nature,  consist- 
ing largely  of  crude  fiber,  of  which  an  animal  must  eat  con- 
siderable to  obtain  much  nutriment,  is  a  coarse  feed.  In  the 
dried  form,  like  hay  or  corn  stover,  the  western  farmer  has 
been  accustomed  to  refer  to  them  as  roughage.  In  some 
sections  of  our  country,  farmers  have  certain  feeds  that  are 
more  common  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Farmers 
in  the  North,  for  example,  look  to  red  clover  or  timothy  hay 
for  standard  roughage;  in  the  South,  cowpea  hay  or  Japanese 
clover  is  common;  while  in  Kansas  and  Colorado  alfalfa  is 
a  standard.  Some  plants,  however,  are  more  commonly 
grown  than  others,  and  so  will  receive  special  attention  in  a 
brief  way  in  this  chapter. 

PASTURES,  GREEN  GRASSES  AND  HAYS 

The  value  of  the  grasses  depends  upon  their  develop- 
ment. When  grass  is  young  and  very  green,  especially  in 
spring,  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  water,  and  is  greatly 
relished  by  stock.  As  it  matures,  the  amount  of  protein  and 
total  nutriment  increases.  Usually  we  find  the  food  con- 
stituents, especially  protein,  most  digestible  when  the  plant 
is  in  full  bloom.  After  that  period  the  stalk  and  leaves  grow 
more  woody  and  less  nutritious.  When  left  to  develop  long 
after  blooming,  neither  the  pasture  nor  the  hay  is  eaten  with 
great  relish.  In  experiments  at  the  Missouri  station,  the 
protein  in  timothy  cut  for  hay  was  greatest  when  the  plant 
was  in  full  bloom,  there  being  147  pounds  to  the  acre.  When 

100 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE  ';  1Q3 

the  seeds  were  formed,  however,  there  was  but  113  pounds 
of  protein  per  acre,  and  this  amount  diminished  to  92  pounds 
when  the  grass  was  cut  for  hay  and  the  seeds  were  well  rip- 
ened. The  total  digestible  matter  also  fell  off  from  2,113 
pounds  per  acre  when  the  plant  was  in  bloom,  to  1,754  pounds 
when  the  stage  of  ripe  seed  was  reached.  This  evidence 
suggests  that  the  farmer  should  cut  his  grasses  for  hay  before 
they  become  too  mature. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  or  June  grass,  is  one  of  the  most 
nutritious  and  best  pasture  grasses.  It  grows  extensively 
in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  though  sparsely 


Figure  20. — Shorthorn  cows  on  blue-grass  pasture.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

in  the  Gulf  states.  It  thrives  especially  on  soils  having  a 
limestone  foundation,  and  will  not  do  so  well  elsewhere. 
No  other  grass  is  more  relished  for  spring  pasture  by  grazing 
animals.  The  roots  spread  out  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  form  a  beautiful  sod.  In  moist  weather  and 
under  fair  conditions,  the  grass  furnishes  an  abundance  of 
fine  leaves,  supplying  splendid  pasture.  During  the  sum- 
mer, many  pastures  dry  up  and  look  as  though  dead,  but  fall 
rains  revive  them,  and  they  again  become  green  and  vigor- 
ous. In  some  sections,  stock  is  pastured  on  the  dead  blue 


102  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

grass  of  winter,  not  much  other  feed  being  given,  and  with 
very  good  satisfaction.  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  not  usually 
valued  for  hay,  but  is  known  universally  as  a  valuable  pas- 
ture grass.  The  hay  from 'this  grass  contains  about  5  per 
cent  of  digestible  protein,  and  52  per  cent  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents when  grown  under  average  conditions. 

Timothy  is  a  standard  grass  commonly  grown  on  the 
heavier  soils  of  the  North.  It  is  frequently  used  for  pasture, 
and  makes  a  highly  valued  hay  for  horses.  As  a  pasture 
grass,  timothy  is  not  the  best.  It  does  not  stand  trampling 
as  well  as  some  others,  having  small  bulbs  at  the  ground, 
with  fine  roots  just  beneath  them,  which  are  injured  by  heavy 
pasturing.  This  grass  is  generally  somewhat  coarse;  but,  if 
it  is  thickly  seeded,  more  plants  grow  to  the  acre,  and  as  a 
result  they  are  finer  and  more  palatable.  Timothy  cut  and 
cured  immediately  after  the  pollen  falls  from  the  blossom 
makes  better  hay  than  that  from  an  earlier  or  older  cutting. 
Under  usual  conditions,  this  is  an  excellent  hay  for  horses, 
but  not  so  well  suited  to  cattle  and  sheep.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  timothy  hay  is  bright  and  free  from  dust. 
Timothy  in  full  bloom  contains  about  3.5  per  cent  of  digest- 
ible protein  and  51  per  cent  of  total  digestible  nutrients. 

Millet  is  grown  in  a  number  of  varieties.  Hungarian 
grass  is  the  smallest  form,  and  reaches  a  height  usually  of 
about  two  feet,  with  a  single,  small,  bristly  head.  This 
makes  very  fair  hay,  containing  about  5  per  cent  digest- 
ible protein.  German  millet  is  somewhat  larger  and  coarser 
than  Hungarian,  and  has  a  larger  head,  though  of  the  same 
type.  Both  these  millets  may  be  sown  in  early  summer,  and 
under  favorable  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  they  make 
a  very  rapid  growth  and  furnish  an  abundant  hay  crop  in  a 
short  season,  usually  maturing  late  in  August  or  in  Septem- 
ber. Millets  are  not  generally  used  in  pastures.  When 
heavily  seeded  they  make  very  good  hay  for  cattle  and 
sheep.  Caution  should  be  used  in  feeding  this  hay  to 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE 


103 


horses,  as  it  is  thought  by  some  to  cause  kidney  trouble  if 
fed  very  heavily.  The  millets  may  be  grown  over  much  of 
the  country. 

Redtop  is  a  fine  grass  in  appearance,  and  makes  an  excel- 
lent pasture.  It  is  quite  common  in  certain  sections  North 
and  South,  but  is  not  generally  abundant  in  the  cooler  grass- 
growing  sections,  probably  doing  better  on  the  damper  low- 
lands than  elsewhere.  It  makes  a  very  palatable  and 
nutritious  hay,  with  a  chemical  composition  quite  similar  to 
Kentucky  blue  grass. 

Orchard  grass  is  common  in  some  sections  in  the  north- 
eastern parts  of  the  United  States.  It  grows  in  tussocks, 
or  bunches,  so  that  the 
turf  from  this  plant  is 
somewhat  uneven ;  hence 
it  is  not  liked  so  well  as 
some  other  grasses  for 
pasture.  It  starts  up 
early  in  spring,  and  has 
a  strong,  rather  coarse 
growth,  with  hardly  as 
smooth  a  stem  as  timo- 
thy. It  is  not  quite  as  Figu 
nutritious  as  timothy, 
ranking  just  below  it.  It  may  be  grown  to  advantage  with  red 
clover,  and  often  is,  in  the  Middle  West.  It  is  best  suited  for 
horses  and  cattle,  though  it  should  be  cut  as  hay  before  getting 
very  ripe.  While  differing  in  size  and  growth  from  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  it  has  a  similar  composition  in  digestible  protein 
and  total  digestible  nutrients. 

Brome  grass  in  recent  years  has  received  considerable 
attention  in  the  Northwest,  especially  in  the  Dakotas  and 
in  Western  Canada.  Here  it  has  become  a  very  important 
cultivated  grass,  occupying  a  position  similar  to  that  of 
timothy  in  the  northern  corn  belt,  but  which  grass  it  excels 


re  22. — A  good  cover  for  the  hay  stack 
lotograph  by  Prof.  A.  G.  McCall. 


104  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

in  contents  of  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients.  At  the 
North  Dakota  station  this  was  found  to  be  the  best  grass  for 
permanent  pasture.  It  has  the  double  merit  of  being  palat- 
able, and  of  being  suited  to  semi-arid  regions. 

Bermuda  grass  in  the  South  is  a  standard  pasture.  This 
plant  grows  a  perfect  network  of  roots  near  the  surface,  and 
covers  the  ground  as  with  a  mat.  It  is  a  very  nutritious 
pasture  plant,  and  has  a  most  valuable  place  in  southern 
agriculture.  It  will  stand  heavy  pasturing,  and  may  be  used 
from  March  to  November.  If  grown  on  rich  soil,  very  heavy 
cuttings  of  hay  may  be  expected.  Bermuda  hay  contains 
over  4  per  cent  of  digestible  protein  and  about  43  per  cent  of 
carbohydrates,  excelling  in  protein  any  other  common  grass. 

Sudan  grass  is  one  of  the  new  grasses  of  this  country, 
being  introduced  in  1909.  It  is  a  tall  grass,  having  stems 
of  the  size  of  a  common  lead  pencil,  and  is  related  to  the 
cultivated  sorghums.  It  is  especially  suited  to  the  southern 
states  and  irrigated  regions  of  the  Southwest.  As  an  annual 
grass  it  will  grow  in  Kansas,  but  can  not  survive  the  winter 
of  the  North.  It  seems  destined  to  take  the  place  of  Johnson 
grass  in  the  South,  because  it  is  fully  as  productive,  and  does 
not  have  the  root-spreading  habit.  In  the  far  South  four 
cuttings  of  hay  have  been  made  in  a  season,  yielding  over 
seven  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  and  a  record  of  nearly  nine  and 
one  half  tons  per  acre  is  reported  from  Chico,  California, 
these  heavy  yields  coming  from  irrigation.  In  feeding  value 
this  plant  ranks  somewhat  superior  to  timothy. 

Mixed  grasses  are  frequently  sown  for  pasture  in  the 
northern  states,  timothy,  redtop,  orchard  grass,  and  clover 
forming  the  usual  combination.  Prairie  grass  is  usually  a 
mixture,  and  somewhat  resembles  timothy  in  feeding  value. 

THE  CEREALS  AS  FORAGE 

Indian  corn  is  perhaps  the  most  common  cultivated  plant 
in  American  agriculture.  Except  on  the  arid  lands,  it  thrives 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE  105 

from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Gulf  to  Canada. 
It  is  the  universal  crop  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  furn- 
ishes more  food  from  an  acre  of  ground  than  any  other  com- 
mon crop.  It  is  keenly  relished  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep, 
both  in  the  green  state  and  as  dried  roughage.  No  other 
plant  in  summer  furnishes  so  much  succulent  feed  as  Indian 
corn.  Grown  somewhat  thickly,  the  stalks  are  finer  than 
common,  and  give  a  large  yield  of  either  green  fodder  or  dried 
forage  that  is  quite  completely  eaten  by  cattle  and  horses. 
In  the  North,  corn  produces  a  smaller  plant  than  in  the 
South,  and  gives  a  smaller  yield  of  forage.  Very  large,  heavy 
stalks,  such  as  are  frequently  seen  in  the  corn  belt,  are  not 


Figure  23. — Cutting  corn   with  a   harvester  which  ties  the  corn  in  bundles. 
Photograph  from  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

so  desirable  for  feeding  as  those  of  more  moderate  size. 
About  one  third  of  the  digestible  food  is  found  in  the  stalk, 
and  two  thirds  in  the  ear.  The  complete  cured  plant  and 
ear  is  commonly  known  as  corn  fodder,  and  after  the  ear  is 
removed  it  is  called  corn  stover.  The  dry  stover,  with  the 
help  of  a  little  grain,  is  valuable  for  roughing  stock  through 
the  winter,  if  much  fattening  is  not  desired.  It  is  a  bulky 
feed,  and  should  not  be  fed  heavily  to  animals  from  which 
much  is  expected.  The  plant  contains  the  largest  amount 
of  nutriment  when  the  kernels  on  the  ear  are  beginning  to 
glaze  or  harden,  but  it  may  be  cut  for  feeding  at  any  time 


106  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

from  the  appearance  of  the  silk  to  final  ripening.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  an  acre  of  field  corn  will  yield  a  total 
of  about  three  tons  of  digestible  nutrients.  Fodder  left  out 
in  the  shock  during  the  winter  is  injured  more  or  less  in  feed- 
ing value,  losing  in  nutriment  through  mould  and  weather- 
ing. 

Oats  do  best  in  the  cooler  sections  of  the  North,  but  so- 
called  winter  oats  do  well  in  the  South.  This  crop  may  be 
pastured  or  cut  and  fed  green  when  of  sufficient  maturity. 
In  New  England  many  farmers  grow  oats  to  cut  and  cure 
as  hay  when  the  grain  is  in  the  milk.  Oat  straw  is  one  of 
the  best,  both  in  nutritive  value  and  in  being  relished  by 
stock.  A  combination  of  oats  and  Canada  field  peas,  from 
equal  amounts  of  seed  sowed  early  in  spring,  makes  a  very 
desirable  green  crop  for  feeding  in  June  and  July. 

Rye  has  been  much  used  both  as  fall  and  spring  pasture. 
It  mats  up  into  a  thick  growth,  and  can  be  grazed  with 
advantage  to  the  grain  yield  if  not  pastured  too  long  or  too 
heavily,  or  it  may  be  cut  green  and  fed  in  the  stable  or  feed 
lot.  Many  persons  grow  rye  and  turn  stock  on  it  to  harvest 
it  entirely.  Hogs  are  frequently  turned  in,  and  they  con- 
sume both  stalk  and  grain.  Dairy  cattle  should  not  be  fed 
rye,  except  soon  after  milking,  otherwise  a  strong  and 
unpleasant  odor  in  the  plant  will  be  likely  to  give  a  bad 
flavor  to  the  milk.  Rye  straw  is  a  very  poor  feed,  having 
less  than  1  per  cent  of  protein  and  a  great  deal  of  fiber. 

Wheat  and  barley  may  be  used  after  the  same  manner 
as  rye,  and  have  much  the  same  value,  though  they  are  not 
pastured  as  advantageously  as  the  rye.  Barley  makes  a 
nice  soft  hay,  and  is  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds.  Of  the 
cereal  straws,  barley  ranks  close  to  oats  as  one  of  the  best. 
The  sorghums  represent  a  valuable  group  of  forage 
plants,  and  are  especially  suited  to  the  dry-farming  lands  of 
the  West  and  Southwest.  They  will  thrive  under  conditions 
of  lack  of  moisture,  when  corn  would  not  grow.  There  are 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE  107 

several  varieties  of  sorghums,  some  of  which  are  especially 
valuable  for  forage,  notably  Kafir,  which  has  quite  a  leafy 
stem,  and  also  yields  well  of  seed.  Some  sorghums  are 
valued  for  their  sugar  content,  such  as  Amber  cane,  and  this 
is  more  or  less  grown  for  feed  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. For  forage,  sorghum  should  be  grown  fairly  close  in 
rows  wide  enough  for  horse  cultivation.  The  plant  may  be 
fed  green  or  cut  when  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  cured  in  shocks. 

THE  LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  AND  HAY 

Legumes,  which  include  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  beans,  peas, 
etc.,  grow  easily  over  much  of  the  United  States.  They 
are  valuable  chiefly  because  of  the  large  percentage  of  pro- 
tein they  contain,  and  from  the  fact  that  they  are  highly 
relished  by  live  stock.  The  lime  in  the  legumes  is  also  a 
valuable  feature  of  these  plants,  for  it  is  needed  in  building 
up  the  animal  frame.  The  legumes  have  an  extensive  root 
development,  and  have  the  power  of  fixing  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air  in  the  soil,  through  the  agency  of  a  kind  of  bacteria 
that  are  found  especially  in  knots  or  nodules  located  on  the 
roots.  These  nodules  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  and,  where  legumes 
are  .grown,  the  land  is  increased  in  fertility  and  improved  in 
texture. 

Red  clover  is  extremely  common  in  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. One  hundred  pounds  of  the  dried  hay  contain  about 
7J/2  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  50  of  total  digestible 
nutrients.  As  a  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  it  is  regarded 
as  excellent.  As  a  pasture  it  ranks  high;  and  in  the  corn 
belt  a  combination  of  clover  pasture  in  the  late  summer  and 
fall,  supplemented,  with  ear  corn,  is  a  favorite  ration  for  hogs. 
Brood  sows  and  sheep  do  well  on  clover  pasture.  A  large 
crop  of  green  feed  may  be  cut  from  a  good  stand  of  clover 
during  the  season,  and  this  makes  splendid  feed  for  all  kinds 
of  farm  stock.  At  the  Wisconsin  station,  as  much  as  26  tons 
of  green  feed  were  obtained  in  3  cuttings  from  an  acre  of  red 


108  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

clover.  For  hay,  red  clover  should  be  cut  when  the  blossoms 
are  in  full  development,  at  which  time  it  contains  the  most 
nutriment.  Clover  should  be  cured  carefully  and  protected 
from  the  wet  as  much  as  possible  after  cutting.  When  clover 
hay  is  well  cured  and  reasonably  free  from  dust,  it  may  be 
fed  to  horses  with  advantage. 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  popular  plants  in  America.  In 
the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West  it  has  long  been  a  leading 
crop.  In  recent  years,  its  cultivation  has  been  greatly 
extended,  so  that  now  it  is  grown  with  success  over  much  of 
the  United  States,  north  and  south,  and  also  in  parts  of 
Canada.  From  two  to  five  crops  a  year  may  be  harvested. 


Figure  24. — A  field  of  alfalfa  in  Ohio.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  5  cuttings  yielded 
26J/2  tons  of  green  forage,  equivalent  to  almost  6  tons  of  dry 
matter  per  acre.  Alfalfa  is  a  plant  that  is  rich  in  protein, 
containing  from  10  to  11  per  cent  in  digestible  form,  and 
the  dried  hay  is  often  compared  with  wheat  bran  in  composi- 
tion and  feeding  value.  The  fact  is,  that  alfalfa  is  so  close 
to  bran  in  protein  and  carbohydrate  content  that  in  some 
sections  of  the  West  it  is  ground  and  fed  in  a  meal-like  form. 
Large  quantities  of  special  feed  stuffs  are  made  of  this  alfalfa 
meal,  and  are  sold  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Alfalfa  makes  fine  pasturage,  especially  for  sheep  and 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUOHAOE  109 

hogs,  but  is  not  generally  so  used.  It  is  undesirable  to 
pasture  it  much,  as  heavy  trampling  injures  the  crowns  of 
the  roots.  Neither  should  it  be  pastured  very  closely.  A 
combination  of  alfalfa  pasture  and  corn  makes  a  splendid 
ration.  When  sheep  or  hogs  are  turned  on  this  pasture,  they 
should  first  have  a  good  fill  of  hay,  and  should  be  kept  con- 
stantly on  the  green  feed  from  then  on,  by  which  method 
bloat  may  be  prevented.  When  made  into  hay,  the  plants 
should  be  cut  at  about  the  time  new  shoots  begin  to  appear 
about  the  crown  of  the  root,  and  when  the  flowers  are  partly 
in  bloom.  The  plant  should  be  cured  so  as  to  hold  as  much 
bright  green  leaf  as  possible.  As  hay,  this  plant  is  unsur- 
passed. It  is  suited  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  All 
these  animals  like  it,  and  do  well  on  it.  Corn  is  one  of  the 
best  feeds  to  give  with  it.  In  the  West,  large  numbers  of 
sheep  are  fattened  on  corn  and  alfalfa.  Brood  sows  do  well 
on  alfalfa  hay  and  a  little  corn.  This  plant  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  feeds  used  to-day  on  the  stock  farm. 

The  soy  bean  has  rapidly  grown  in  favor  in  recent  years. 
It  thrives  over  a  wide  extent  of  territory,  and  produces  an 
excellent  forage  crop,  and  a  seed  rich  in  protein  and  fat. 
This  plant  combines  well  with  corn,  either  for  forage  or  the 
silo.  It  is  easily  grown  and,  when  not  too  coarse,  yields  a 
large  amount  of  very  excellent  forage  or  hay. 

The  cowpea  is  mostly  grown  in  the  South.  It  is  planted 
to  some  extent  in  the  middle  Mississippi  Valley,  although  it 
does  not  usually  ripen  seed  in  the  North.  It  has  a  constant 
growth  until  frost,  and  so  produces  a  great  amount  of  forage, 
which  is  much  valued  for  grazing  and  for  plowing  under  for 
green  manure.  The  peas  are  rich  in  protein,  and  the  yield 
is  often  very  heavy.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants 
grown  in  the  South,  either  for  grazing,  hay,  or  seed.  The 
hay  may  be  used  to  some  extent  as  a  substitute  for  bran. 

Canada  field  peas  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country 
make  a  valuable  green  crop  for  soiling,  especially  if  planted 


110  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

with  oats  early  in  spring.  A  seeding  of  oats,  followed  imme- 
diately by  one  of  peas  on  the  same  land,  using  about  one 
bushel  and  a  half  of  each  seed  to  the  acre,  gives  one  of  the 
very  best  green  feeds  for  early  and  middle  summer  use.  This 
combination  may  be  safely  fed  to  farm  animals  generally, 
and  it  is  much  relished  by  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
If  desired,  it  can  easily  be  cured  into  a  very  superior  hay. 

SILAGE 

Silage  is  a  feed  more  or  less  green  and  succulent,  pre- 
served in  a  tall  and  usually  circular  structure  known  as  a 
silo.  Green  feed  is  cut  and  stored  in  the  silo,  where  it  goes 
through  a  process  of  fermentation,  with  slight  loss  of  its  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates.  Under  fair  management  this  loss 
need  not  be  over  10  per  cent.  The  silo  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  things  on  the  stock  farm,  for  in  it  a  bulky  feed  can 
be  stored  more  economically  than  in  any  other  way. 

Silage  may  be  made  from  a  variety  of  plants;  but  at  the 
present  time  corn  is  used  nearly  altogether,  because  it  com- 
bines the  largest  yield  of  the  most  easily  stored  and  preserved 
forage  crop  generally  relished  by  stock.  Sorghum,  clover, 
cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  alfalfa  are  sometimes  used.  With 
the  exception  of  sorghum,  these  plants  are  not  always  stored 
in  the  silo  with  satisfaction,  as  they  may  heat  badly  and  sus- 
tain considerable  loss  in  food  value,  unless  well  handled. 
For  this  reason,  corn  silage  only  will  be  discussed  here. 
Sorghum  and  Kafir  corn  may  be  preserved  in  the  silo  equally 
well  with  corn,  a  feature  of  importance  in  the  Southwest. 

The  importance  of  silage  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  enables 
the  stockman  to  give  his  cattle  and  sheep  especially  a  suc- 
culent feed  during  the  winter  months  of  the  year,  and  also 
when  the  pastures  are  dead  and  no  green  feed  is  obtainable. 
If  one  has  plenty  of  silage,  then  one  is  quite  independent  of 
summer  drouth.  In  fact,  many  owners  of  dairy  cattle  feed 
silage  the  year  round.  Because  of  its  tender,  succulent 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE  111 

nature  and  the  convenience  of  handling,  it  is  well  adapted 
to  all  the  seasons  over  most  of  the  United  States. 

The  corn  crop  is  usually  harvested  when  the  kernels  are 
turning  into  the  glaze.  It  then  is  run  through  a  forage  cut- 
te'r  and  cut  into  pieces  about  half  an  inch  long.  In  this  con- 
dition it  is  spread  about  in  the  silo  and  allowed  to  settle. 
As  usually  made,  it  contains  about  1  per  cent  of  digestible 
protein  and  18  per  cent  total  digestible  nutrients.  The  dry 
matter  in  silage  is  worth  no  more  than  that  in  corn  fodder, 
chemically  considered;  but  cattle  especially  seem  to  respond 
to  this  feed  with  increase  of  milk  flow  and  a  better  condition 


Figure  25. — A  cement  silo  on  a  dairy  farm.     Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 

of  body  than  when  on  dry  fodder.  Many  feeding  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  corn  silage  is  most  desirable  for  dairy 
cows,  and  in  recent  years  it  has  grown  greatly  in  favor  as  a 
feed  for  beef  production.  It  is  well  suited  to  sheep.  Horses 
will  do  well  on  it  when  fed  with  moderation.  For  hogs, 
however,  silage  is  too  bulky  and  unsatisfactory  and  is  rarely 
fed  to  them,  and  then  with  little  benefit  in  most  cases.  In 
general,  hay  and  some  grain  should  be  fed  with  silage.  For 
cattle,  from  25  to  35  pounds  a  day  is  a  common  ration,  while 
for  sheep  from  3  to  4  pounds  daily  are  ample. 


112 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Rape  is  a  plant  that  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the 
turnip  and  radish,  and  is  grown  for  its  succulent  leaves.  It 
is  used  exclusively  for  pasturage  for  sheep  and  hogs  and  is 
well  suited  to  the  cooler  sections  of  the  country  or  to  cool 
seasons.  In  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States  rape'is 
an  extremely  popular  pasture  plant  among  sheep  breeders. 
Three  or  four  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  do  for  a  seeding, 
and  stock  may  be  turned  on  the  field  after  the  leaves  have 
become  large  and  succulent.  Rape  will  stand  considerable 
frost  without  damage.  At  the  Michigan  station,  15  acres  of 


Figure  26. — Pigs  in  a  field  of  rape.     Photograph  from  Purdue  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

rape  pastured  128  lambs  for  7J/2  weeks,  during  which  time 
they  gained  2,890  pounds.  From  this  trial  it  was  established 
that  1  acre  of  rape  pastured  9  lambs  7  weeks,  producing  203 
pounds  of  increase.  For  sheep  and  hogs,  rape  furnishes  a 
most  valuable  late  summer  and  fall  pasture.  It  may  also 
be  sown  in  early  spring,  so  that  we  may  secure  the  pasture 
during  the  entire  growing  season.  Green  rape  contains 
about  2%  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  and  compares  very 
favorably  in  feeding  value  with  most  green  clovers. 


COARSE  FEEDS,  OR  ROUGHAGE  1X3 

ROOT  CROPS 

Although  all  farm  animals  relish  roots,  these  crops  can- 
not usually  be  grown  with  profit  in  America,  on  account  of 
the  high  cost  of  labor.  In  Canada  and  northern  United 
States,  roots  may  be  grown  with  great  success  on  fertile  soils, 
but  south  of  latitude  40,  as  a  rule  they  do  not  yield  so  well. 

The  mangold,  or  mangel-wurzel,  a  large,  coarse  beet,  is 
the  most  easily  and  cheaply  grown  of  the  roots  used  for  stock 
feeding.  The  roots  consist  of  about  90  per  cent  water,  and 
of  the  dry  matter  only  1  per  cent  or  even  less  is  protein. 
A  yield  of  10  tons  per  acre  is  not  uncommon.  The  chief 
virtue  of  the  roots  is  that  they  are  succulent  and  are  most 
palatable,  and  keep  the  digestive  organs  of  the  animal  in  a 
healthy,  open  condition.  They  are  usually  fed  after  being 
run  through  a  pulping  or  slicing  machine,  which  puts  the 
root  in  nice  shape  for  feeding.  Many  feeders  in  England 
and  Scotland,  where  roots  are  extensively  used,  mix  the 
sliced  root  with  chaffed  hay  or  straw  and  grain,  which  com- 
bination makes  a  fine  ration.  One  may  feed  cattle  as  high 
as  100  pounds  of  roots  a  day,  but,  as  a  rule,  about  40  or  50 
pounds  is  best.  Sheep  do  especially  well  on  roots,  and  in 
Great  Britain  and  Canada  from  5  to  7  pounds  per  day  are 
commonly  fed  to  these  animals. 

Carrots  are  slightly  more  nutritious  than  mangolds,  but 
are  more  difficult  to  grow,  and  do  not  yield  so  large  a  crop. 
A  large  amount  of  labor  is  required  in  cultivating  the  carrot 
in  its  early  growth,  which  serves  to  discourage  the  growing 
of  this  really  excellent  root.  They  are  raised  especially  for 
horses,  and  fed  to  them  with  more  success  than  other  roots. 
Swede  turnips,  flat  turnips,  and  rutabagas  are  all  good 
for  stock  and  have  much  the  same  wholesome  effect  as  man- 
gels and  carrots.  They  do  not  yield  as  heavily,  however, 
as  the  mangold,  and  thus  are  more  expensive  to  produce. 
Swede  turnips  are  very  popular  among  British  stockmen,  for 
they  yield  excellent  crops,  and  are  much  relished  by  sheep. 


114  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

CAN  YOU  TELL 

1 .  Why  the  feeding  value  of  a  grass  depends  on  its  stage  of  development? 

2.  Why  timothy  is  a  standard  grass  for  horses? 

3.  Why,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  millet  should  be  fed  with  caution? 

4.  Where  and  why  Bermuda  grass  is  popular? 

5.  Why  Indian  corn  is  so  valuable  to  the  farmer? 

6.  How  the  legumes  add  to  soil  fertility? 

7.  Something  about  alfalfa? 

8.  Wherein  lies  the  special  value  of  silage? 

9.  Why  roots  are  not  grown  more  for  stock  in  America? 

10.  How  many  pounds  of  roots  a  day  should  be  fed  the  different  kinds 

of  farm  animals? 

SUGGESTIONS 

11.  Bring  in  small  samples  of  different  kinds  of  roughage  used  on  the 

farm  on  which  you  live. 

12.  Bring  to  the  class  about  a  half-pound  sample  of  average  hay  such 

as  you  are  commonly  using  on  the  farm.  Compare  it  with  the  other 
class  samples. 

13.  Find  the  nitrogen-carrying  nodules  on  legume  roots. 

14.  Feed  some  green  rye  to  a  milch  cow  three  hours  before  milking. 

Note  whether  the  milk  is  unpleasantly  affected. 

15.  Learn  who  puts  up  the  best  hay  in  your  neighborhood,  study  his 

methods  and  report  on  them. 

16.  How  many  silos  are  there  in  your  township  or  section,  and  to  what 

animals  is  the  silage  fed? 


CHAPTER  XII 
CONCENTRATED  FEEDS 

A  concentrated  feed,  as  one  would  naturally  suppose,  is 
just  the  opposite  of  a  roughage.  The  two  most  common 
forms  are  seen  in  the  grains  of  cereals  and  some  other  agri- 
cultural plants,  and  in  the  by-products  of  mills,  where  the 
cereals  are  converted  into  flour,  breakfast  foods,  starch,  etc. 
There  are  some  other  concentrates,  that  are  products  of  such 
large  manufacturing  industries  as  the  linseed  and  cotton- 
seed oil  mills,  and  the  packing  houses.  In  addition  are  also 
what  are  commonly  known  as  "commercial  feeds"  these  being 
combinations  of  various  grains  and  concentrate  by-products, 
and  are  sold  under  trade  names  on  the  market.  These  are 
all  called  concentrates,  because,  as  a  rule,  they  lack  in  coarse, 
fibrous  structure,  and  contain  larger  percentages  of  protein 
and  starchy  matter  than  forage  plants.  For  example,  the 
grain  of  corn  is  a  concentrate,  one  hundred  pounds  of  which 
contains  fully  three  times  as  much  digestible  protein  and 
twice  as  much  digestible  carbohydrates  as  are  found  in  corn 
fodder.  Using  another  illustration,  gluten  feed,  which  is 
made  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacturing  of  starch  from 
corn,  contains  three  times  as  much  protein  as  the  same 
weight  of  corn. 

The  cost  of  concentrated  feeds  is  always  much  greater 
than  that  of  roughages.  In  fact,  the  cost  of  most  feeds  sold 
on  the  market  increases  as  the  amount  of  protein  in  them 
increases.  Feeds  like  cottonseed  meal  and  tankage,  con- 
taining large  amounts  of  this  nutrient,  are  usually  high- 
priced,  although  that  fact  does  not  mean  that  they  are 
expensive  feeds  to  use.  Sometimes  the  price  of  a  certain  con- 
centrate is  low  on  account  of  a  glutted  market  or  high  because 

115 


116  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  supply  is  exhausted.      If,  for  example,  the  flaxseed  crop 
of  America  is  very  poor,  then  linseed  oil  meal  is  likely  to  be 
high-priced,  and  perhaps  would  cost  more  than  it  is  really 
worth.     There  is  no  special  rule,  however,  about  that  mat- 
ter, and  sometimes  business  combinations  control  the  prices 
of  such  feeds,  so  that  one  must  pay  without  regard  to  the 
actual  supply  on  the  market.    Market  prices,  however,  are 
no  guide  as  to  the  real  value  of  feeds,  and  we  have  no  satis- 
factory method  of  determining  comparative  values.     The 
most  satisfactory  plan  thus  far  devised  is  to  ascertain  the 
cost  of  each  pound  of  total  digestible  nutrients  in  a  ton  of 
feed.     For  example;  if  a  ton  of  corn,  containing  85.7  per  cent 
of  digestible  nutrients,  costs  $20.00  on  the  market,  then  each 
pound  of  nutrients  would  cost  1.17  cents.     If  hominy  feed  of 
very  similar  composition,  containing  84.6  per  cent  of  digest- 
ible nutrients,  costs  $26.00  a  ton,  then  each  nutrient  will  cost 
1.54  cents  per  pound,  which  is  a  decided  increase  in  cost  for 
the  nutrients  in  the  hominy  as  compared  with  those  in  the 
corn.     If  one  purchases  high-priced  protein  feed,  then  it  may 
be  wise  to  base  judgment  in  purchase  on  the  relative  cost  of 
a  pound  of  digestible  protein  from  feeds  of  different  kinds, 
as,  for  example,  cottonseed  meal  and  linseed  meal.      We  can 
not,  however,  entirely  determine  the  value  of  a  feed  from  its 
chemical  composition.     Linseed  meal  is  universally  recog- 
nized as  having  a  feed  value  beyond  what  is  brought  out  by 
the  chemist,  as  shown  in  its  value  in  conditioning  animals. 
Many  feeders  of  roots  also  claim  that  a  chemical  analysis 
does  not  bring  out  their  real  feeding  value,  which  is  much 
greater  than  the  figures  indicate. 

CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

Indian  corn  is  our  most  common  grain.  It  is  a  food  rich 
in  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  is  especially  valued  for  fatten- 
ing animals.  It  is  often  called  a  heating  food,  on  account  of 
its  heat  or  energy  value.  It  is  greatly  relished  by  all  farm 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  111 

animals,  and  may  be  fed  on  the  ear,  shelled,  or  milled  into 
pure  meal,  or  the  entire  ear  may  be  ground  into  what  we  call 
corn-and-cob-meal.  While  corn  is  rich  in  fattening  material, 
it  lacks  in  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  so  that,  when  fed  alone, 
it  furnishes  a  rather  one-sided  ration.  Except  during  the  last 
part  of  the  fattening  period,  it  should  be  fed  along  with  some 
feed  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  such  as  bran,  middlings,  etc. 

There  are  different  races  of  corn.  In  the  more  northern 
parts  of  the  country,  as  in  New  England,  a  small  to  medium- 
sized  plant,  with  a  somewhat  slender  ear,  covered  with  hard, 
flinty  kernels,  is  grown.  This  is  called  flint  corn.  Over 
most  of  the  country  a  larger  plant,  with  thicker  ears,  covered 
with  longer  kernels,  dented  at  the  outer  end,  is  grown.  This 
is  known  as  dent  corn,  and  makes  up  most  of  the  corn  crop 
of  the  United  States.  Besides  these  two,  we  have  sugar,  or 
sweet  corn,  which  has  a  rough-surfaced  ear  that  may  be  very 
small  or  of  medium  size,  covered  with  kernels  that  when  dry 
are  somewhat  shriveled  and  tough.  This  sweet  corn  con- 
tains some  glucose  sugar,  which  accounts  for  the  pleasant 
taste  of  the  grain. 

Corn  meal  is  the  ground  grain  without  the  cob.  The 
usual  run  of  such  meal  on  the  farm  is  rather  coarse  and  is 
often  cracked  or  crushed  rather  than  finely  ground.  In 
some  sections,  the  farmer  calls  it  "corn  chop."  At  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  Professor  Henry  for  ten  consecu- 
tive winters  fed  two  groups  of  pigs,  one  with  corn  meal  and 
the  other  with  shelled  corn.  On  the  average  it  required  501 
pounds  of  whole  corn  and  wheat  middlings  for  100  pounds 
of  gain,  and  but  471  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  middlings,  a 
saving  of  6  per  cent.  In  feeding  a  bushel  of  50-cent  corn 
there  would  be  a  saving  of  three  cents  on  a  bushel,  allowing 
nothing  for  labor  or  expense.  Thus  we  can  see  that  it  usually 
does  not  pay  to  grind  the  grain,  even  though  it  is  more  com- 
pletely digested  than  the  whole  kernel.  Some  special  pur- 
pose grinding  may  be  quite  desirable. 


118  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Corn-and-cob  meal  is  the  kernel  and  cob  ground  up  to- 
gether. If  the  cob  is  not  too  coarse,  such  feed  is  excellent 
for  cattle  and  sheep.  Feeding  experiments  have  shown  that 
100  pounds  of  corn-and-cob  meal  fed  to  these  animals  will 
give  returns  equal  to  100  pounds  of  pure  corn  meal.  The 
reason  given  for  this  is  that  the  ground  cob  makes  the  meal 
more  porous,  allowing  the  fluids  of  the  stomach  in  digesting 
the  food  to  mix  more  easily  with  the  corn  and  porous  cob 
meal  than  with  the  pure  meal,  which  is  inclined  to  become 
heavy  and  soggy.  This  feed  is  not  good  for  hogs,  unless 
ground  very  fine,  as  it  contains  too  much  woody  fiber. 

Gluten  feed  is  a  product  of  factories  where  starch  is  made 
from  corn.  It  consists  of  what  is  left  of  the  grain  after  the 
starch  and  germ  have  been  removed,  and  is  quite  rich  in 
digestible  protein,  containing  about  20  per  cent.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  a  mill  product  of  much  value  in 
balancing  a  ration  for  these  animals.  Gluten  meal,  another 
product  of  the  starch  factory,  richer  in  protein  than  gluten 
feed,  was  formerly  sold  separately.  At  present  it  is  usually 
ground  in  with  the  gluten  feed. 

Hominy  feed  is  a  by-product  of  the  hominy  mill.  It 
resembles  a  fine  whitish  corn  meal  when  made  from  white 
corn,  and  consists  of  the  hulls  and  other  parts  of  the  corn 
grain  ground  up  together.  Its  feeding  value  is  quite  the 
same  as  corn  meal,  and  it  is  excellent  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs,  all  eating  it  with  a  relish.  Hominy  feed  is  quite  popu- 
lar in  some  sections  of  the  country  among  men  feeding  dairy 
cattle  in  official  testing  for  milk  and  butter-fat. 

Wheat  is  not  usually  fed  to  animals,  unless  it  is  very  low 
in  price.  It  becomes  somewhat  pasty  when  ground  in  the 
mouth,  as  everyone  knows  who  has  lived  in  a  wheat  country. 
It  contains  about  9  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  and 
belongs  in  the  class  of  feeds  fairly  rich  in  this  substance.  All 
animals  are  fond  of  wheat.  It  should,  however,  be  crushed 
or  cracked  before  feeding  to  horses,  cattle,  or  hogs;  but  need 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  119 

not  be  for  sheep.  Wheat  tends  to  make  animals  muscular 
or  lean  and  hence  its  feeding  value  is  greatly  improved  by 
the  addition  of  an  equal  amount  of  corn. 

Wheat  bran  is  the  outer  covering  of  the  kernel.  In  the 
big  flour  mills,  the  kernel  is  crushed  to  obtain  the  flour,  and 
the  thin  outer  fibrous  covering  is  removed  as  bran.  This 
contains  about  12  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  and  is  a 
standard  concentrate  for  feeding  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
We  say  that  bran  is  a  laxative,  and  keeps  the  digestive  sys- 
tem cool  and  open,  a  very  necessary  condition  for  farm  ani- 
mals. Stockmen  have  always  regarded  bran  as  especially 
valuable.  It  has  recently  been  found  by  chemists  to  con- 
tain an  acid  substance  called  phytin,  which  has  beneficial 
laxative  effects  on  the  digestion.  Wheat  bran  is  well  suited 
to  mix  with  corn  or  oats  or  may  be  fed  alone  to  stock.  Many 
horsemen  feed  it  in  the  form  of  a  thick,  wet,  warm  slop, 
called  "bran  mash."  Bran  is  even  more  of  a  muscle  and 
bone-making  food  than  wheat,  and  most  students  of  feeding 
use  it  for  young,  growing  animals.  There  are  brans  made 
from  spring  wheat,  such  as  is  grown  in  the  Northwest,  and 
from  winter  wheat.  There  is  not  much  difference  between 
them,  but  the  bran  from  winter  wheat  usually  contains  some- 
what more  flour  than  that  from  spring  wheat. 

Wheat  middlings  are  also  a  by-product  of  the  flour  mill. 
They  are  commonly  of  two  grades  in  the  trade,  flour,  or 
white,  middlings  containing  about  15J/2  per  cent  of  digestible 
protein,  and  standard  middlings,  containing  about  13J^  per 
cent  of  protein.  The  total  digestible  nutrients  as  given  by 
Henry  and  Morrison  are  78.2  per  cent  for  the  former  and 
69.3  per  cent  for  the  latter.  Standard  middlings  contain  less 
flour  than  the  other  grade,  and  are  quite  similar  to  shorts, 
which  is  often  reground  bran.  Flour  middlings  usually  cost 
four  or  five  dollars  more  a  ton  than  the  standard,  and  are 
much  preferred  to  the  latter  by  feeders  of  hogs,  for  which 
purpose  middlings  are  mainly  used  by  the  farmer.  On  the 


120  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

market  middlings  usually  sell  for  several  dollars  more  a  ton 
than  bran,  especially  when  there  is  an  active  demand. 

Wheat  screenings  usually  consist  of  shrunken,  broken 
grains  of  wheat,  mixed  with  weed  seeds,  pieces  of  straw,  etc. 
The  value  of  screenings  depends  upon  the  amount  of  grain 
in  it.  They  have  been  very  extensively  fed  to  fattening 
sheep  in  America,  especially  in  the  Northwest,  near  the  flour 
mills.  Sheep  do  well  on  screenings,  and,  if  one  can  buy  at  a 
cheap  enough  price,  they  are  a  good  feed  to  use. 

Oats  are  a  standard  feed  for  farm  animals  in  all  agricul- 
tural countries.  They  contain  about  10  per  cent  of  digest- 
ible protein,  as  compared  with  about  9  in  wheat,  but  have 
less  carbohydrates  and  more  fat  than  the  wheat.  It  has 
often  been  thought  that  oats  contained  some  substance  that 
gives  life  and  snap  to  animals  beyond  that  furnished  by  any 
other  grain,  but  chemists  have  not  been  able  to  find  this 
mystical  something.  Still,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  oats 
do  produce  a  most  excellent  effect  on  the  horse,  far  better 
than  any  other  grain.  Some  oats  are  more  chaffy  than 
others.  Northern-grown  oats  are  plumper  and  weigh  more 
than  southern  ones.  In  fact,  oats  do  better  in  the  cooler 
sections  of  our  country,  and  yield  far  larger  crops.  For 
horses  no  other  feed  is  so  widely  used  in  America  or  Europe. 
It  is  not  likely  to  cause  indigestion,  and  is  a  safe  feed.  It  is 
best  suited  to  cattle  and  hogs  when  crushed  or  ground,  while 
sheep  will  do  equally  well  on  it  in  any  form.  For  young, 
growing  animals  it  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  we  have;  for,  like 
bran,  it  helps  to  build  up  a  strong,  muscular  frame.  Often 
oats  are  very  expensive,  and  their  purchase,  which  may  be- 
come a  serious  problem  with  the  feeder,  should  depend  on 
the  cost  and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

Oat  hulls  are  very  poor  as  a  feed  stuff,  for  they  contain 
but  little  nutriment,  and  are  too  largely  fiber.  They  are  fre- 
quently mixed  with  commercial  feed  stuffs  to  act  as  a  "filler." 

Barley  is  a  very  hard  small  grain,  that  as  commonly 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  121 

grown  is  covered  with  a  strong  husk.  It  is  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, and  has  slightly  more  protein  than  corn.  It  is 
not  commonly  fed  to  farm  animals  in  the  United  States,  but 
is  very  popular  in  northern  Europe.  Horses  will  do  well  on 
barley,  while  barley  meal  as  a  feed  for  swine  ranks  very  high 
in  Canada  and  Europe.  Experiments  have  shown  that  pigs 
fed  barley  make  a  superior  quality  of  bacon.  It  should  be 
crushed  or  ground  before  feeding. 

Rye  is  quite  similar  to  wheat  in  composition.  It  makes 
a  good  feed  for  the  same  purposes  for  which  wheat  is  used. 
It  has  a  somewhat  stronger  flavor  than  other  grains,  and, 
when  fed  to  dairy  cows,  tends  to  give  an  objectionable  taste 
to  milk.  If  fed,  it  should  be  given  right  after  milking. 

Linseed  meal  is  the  product  of  flaxseed.  This  seed  con- 
tains about  30  per  cent  of  oil.  The  manufacturers  of  linseed 
oil  grind  the  seed,  and  extract  the  oil  by  pressure,  leaving 
long,  brown,  board-like  cakes,  as  a  by-product.  These  are 
broken  up,  or  ground,  and  fed  as  linseed  cake  or  linseed  meal. 
It  contains  about  30  per  cent  of  digestible  protein  and  about 
78  per  cent  of  digestible  nutrients.  All  farm  animals  are 
most  fond  of  this  product,  and  it  is  used  to  some  extent  by 
many  feeders.  It  softens  the  skin  of  animals  and  gives  a 
silky  lustre  to  the  hair.  It  is  often  used  in  so-called  con- 
dition powders,  to  make  up  much  of  the  bulk  of  them.  It 
should  form  from  one  tenth  to  one  fifth  of  the  ration,  accord- 
ing as  the  need  exists  for  a  highly  concentrated  feed  to  bal- 
ance the  ration. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  a  by-product  of  the  cottonseed  oil 
mills.  About  one  fifth  of  the  seed  is  oil.  The  usual  custom 
is  to  remove  the  hard  covering,  or  hull,  of  the  seed,  and  then 
press  a  dark  brownish  oil  from  the  meats,  which,  when  re- 
fined, becomes  an  attractive  golden  yellow.  The  by-product 
remains  as  long,  yellow,  board-like  cakes.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  concentrated  and  valuable  feeds  that  we  have.  Small 
particles  of  hulls  are  to  be  found  in  the  cake,  and  the  greater 


122  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  amount  of  hulls,  the  poorer  the  grade  in  protein  of  the 
cake.  There  are  three  recognized  grades  on  the  market, 
based  on  the  protein  content.  These  grades  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Choice  cottonseed  meal,  in  perfect  condition,  sweet  in 
odor,  yellow  in  color  rather  than  reddish  or  brown,  free  from 
excess  lint,  and  containing  at  least  41  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

(2)  Prime  cottonseed  meal,  which  must  be  sweet  of  odor, 
reasonably  bright  in  color,  and  containing  at  least  38.6  per 
cent  of  crude  protein. 

(3)  Good  cottonseed  meal,  containing  at  least  36  per  cent 
of  crude  protein,  otherwise  like  the  prime  in  character. 

An  excellent  and  justly  popular  balanced  ration  consists 
of  a  combination  of  corn  silage  or  stover,  with  some  shelled 
or  ear  corn,  and  cottonseed  meal.  Cottonseed  meal  is  not 
a  safe  feed  for  pigs  or  calves,  as  it  has  a  poisonous  effect, 
which  may  result  in  serious  sickness  and  death.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  often  one  of  the  most  economical  protein  foods 
that  the  cattle  feeder  can  buy,  considering  the  character  of 
the  nutriment  it  contains.  It  is  fed  to  some  extent  in  the 
South,  along  with  the  hulls,  which  largely  consist  of  woody 
fiber,  and  fair  gains  in  steer  feeding  have  come  from  this  com- 
bination. Milk  from  cows  fed  cottonseed  meal  produces  a 
harder  butter  than  when  corn  is  used.  The  fat  of  steers  that 
have  been  fed  cottonseed  meal  is  also  harder  than  that  of 
steers  fed  corn  meal.  One  can  easily  see  that  in  warm  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  this  feed,  butter 
will  ship  better  than  it  might  if  some  other  feed  were  used. 

Cottonseed  feed  is  a  mixture  of  cottonseed  meal  and  hulls, 
containing  less  than  36  per  cent  of  crude  protein. 

Cold  pressed  cottonseed  cake  is  made  by  crushing  the 
seed  under  great  pressure  while  cold,  thus  extracting  the  oil. 
It  contains  considerable  hulls,  and  shows  about  21  per  cent 
of  digestible  crude  protein. 

Tankage,  or  meat  meal,  is  a  product  of  the  beef -packing 
house.  It  is  made  from  inferior  pieces  of  meat  and  the  trim- 


CONCENTRATED  FEEDS  123 

mings,  and  from  diseased  carcasses.  This  meat  is  sterilized, 
and  dried  in  air-tight  tanks,  and  is  then  ground  to  a  meal. 
It  is  very  rich  in  protein,  containing  usually  from  50  to  60 
per  cent,  and  11  or  12  per  cent  of  fat.  It  is  especially  relished 
by  hogs,  and  since  1900  has  been  much  used  in  the  West 
along  with  corn  to  balance  up  the  ration.  A  mixture  of  1 
part  of  tankage  and  6  to  10  of  corn  gives  excellent  results  in 
hog  feeding.  While  this  feed  is  high-priced,  it  is  no  doubt 
one  of  the  most  important  additions  to  the  rations  for  swine. 
The  glossy  coat  of  hair  and  hearty  appetite  of  the  tankage- 
fed  hog  are  evidences  of  the  value  of  this  feed. 

Milk  is  not  strictly  a  concentrated  food,  but  will  be 
briefly  referred  to  here.  As  drawn  from  the  cow  it  contains 
about  87  J/2  per  cent  of  water  and  12 1/2  per  cent  of  solid 
material.  Of  the  solids,  about  3J/2  to  4  per  cent  is  usually 
fat  and  4  to  5  per  cent  milk  sugar.  Milk  is  a  most  important 
food  for  all  young  animals  during  the  earlier  stages  of  growth. 
If  new  milk  is  fed,  the  young  animals  lay  on  flesh  easily,  and 
may  take  on  a  strong,  muscular  development.  If  the  fat  is 
taken  from  the  milk,  and  skim  milk  is  fed,  a  good  frame  may 
develop,  but  the  animal  will  not  look  so  well  fed,  the  skin 
will  not  be  so  mellow,  nor  the  hair  so  glossy.  Pigs  of  any 
age  will  do  well  on  a  combination  of  milk  and  a  grain  rich  in 
carbohydrates,  which  ration  makes  a  very  high-class  pork. 
Buttermilk  has  much  the  same  feeding  value  as  skim  milk, 
there  being  almost  no  fat  in  either.  One  should  be  careful 
to  feed  only  clean  milk,  produced  under  healthful  conditions. 
Skim  milk  from  a  creamery  should  not  be  fed,  unless  it  is 
first  pasteurized,  so  that  disease  germs  may  be  destroyed. 

Whey,  a  by-product  of  cheese-making,  has  a  feeding 
value  about  half  that  of  skim  milk.  In  Europe  it  is  com- 
monly fed  to  swine.  Used  to  best  advantage,  it  should  be 
fed  with  supplements  rich  in  protein.  Dried  skim  and 
buttermilk  powders,  mixed  with  water,  are  also  used 
somewhat  as  substitutes  for  the  standard  products. 


124  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

SOME  CONCENTRATED  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  concentrates? 

2.  Why  is  corn  so  valuable? 

3.  Which   is  better  for   cattle, — corn   meal  or  corn-and-cob  meal? 

Why? 

4.  What  special  value  has  bran? 

5.  How  do  oats  rank  as  feed  for  horses? 

6.  In  what  countries  is  barley  a  popular  feed? 

7.  Why  recommend  linseed-oil  meal? 

8.  What  can  you  say  about  cottonseed  meal? 

9.  Why  feed  tankage? 

10.  What  is  the  average  composition  of  milk? 

HINTS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

11.  Collect  samples  of  concentrates  fed  in  your  neighborhood,  and  label 

with  name,  composition,  and  price. 

12.  Make  up  a  sample  ration,  specifying  on  a  card, — 

(a)  Pounds  of  each  concentrate  used. 

(b)  Cost  of  each  concentrate. 

(c)  Nutritive  ratio. 

(d)  Kind  of  stock  for  which  prepared. 

13.  Learn  what  your  neighbors  are  feeding  for  concentrates,  cost,  and 

how  used.     Can  you  suggest  improvements? 

14.  Who  feeds  tankage,  under  what  conditions,  and  with  what  results? 

15.  Investigate  the  conditions  under  which  skim  milk  is  sold  for  feed 

to  creamery  patrons  in  your  locality,  and  report. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  relationship  of  the  animal  form  to  its  function  is  one 

of  great  importance  and  offers  a  most  interesting  study  for 
the  live-stock  student  who  would  know  farm  animals.  The 
word  conformation  is  used  in  a  general  reference  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  parts  of  the  form  to  one  another.  When 


Figure  27. — Giraffes  in  the  New  York  Zoo,  Bronx  Park.     Photograph  by  the 

author. 

one  says  an  animal  has  a  good  conformation,  one  simply 
means  that  the  different  parts  are  well  balanced  and  in 
harmony  with  one  another.  Scientific  study  has  shown  that 
all  animals,  no  matter  how  odd  they  may  seem,  have  con- 
formations best  suited  to  their  needs  and  conditions  of  life. 
The  giraffe,  with  excessively  long  neck,  feeds  on  the  twigs 
and  leaves  of  the  trees  overhead;  the  lion,  with  cat-like  form, 
slyly  creeps  up  and  springs  upon  its  prey,  and  tears  and  cuts 

125 


126  A   STUDY   OF  FARM.  ANIMALS 

away  its  flesh  by  means  of  its  powerful  jaws  and  teeth;  the 
deer,  light  and  most  graceful  of  form,  grazes  on  the  grass 
and  tender  twigs,  and  bounds  away  to  safety  like  a  flash, 
when  an  enemy  appears.  Form,  size  and  color,  all  have  their 
special  purposes.  Our  domestic  animals  have  developed 
under  artificial  conditions,  over  which  man  has  had  large 
control,  with  the  result  that  our  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
swine  become  creatures  of  special  purpose  to  a  very  unusual 
degree.  The  great  speed  of  the  Thoroughbred,  the  massive 
size  of  the  Shire,  the  excessive  milk  development  of  the  Hol- 
stein-Friesian,  and  the  heavy  fleece  of  the  Merino,  are  all 
fine  examples  of  this  special-purpose  development. 

The  most  efficient  judge  of  live  stock  is  the  student  of 
animal  form  who  can  most  clearly  see  and  understand  this 
relationship  of  form  to  function.  The  qualified  judge  ob- 
tains his  knowledge  in  two  ways:  first,  by  environment,  or 
his  home  surroundings;  and,  second,  by  education.  The 
average  British  farmer  is  a  great  lover  of  animals  and  is 
usually  a  good  judge  of  a  beast,  and  his  children  inherit  the 
same  characteristics.  It  is  second  nature  for  him  to  measure 
up  in  a  logical  way  the  weak  and  strong  points  in  an  animal 
and  judge  their  values.  Yet  one  may  become  a  capable, 
efficient  judge  by  combination  of  a  natural  admiration  for 
animals  with  systematic  training  in  judging.  The  judge  at 
all  times  should  be  able  to  compare  the  animal  before  him 
with  what  he  knows  to  be  the  ideal  or  perfect  one.  The 
ability  to  compare  differs  in  degree.  Beginners  are  not  sup- 
posed to  be  as  proficient  as  experienced  men,  yet  time  and 
experience  add  to  one's  qualifications.  Even  if  one  lacks  to 
some  extent  the  desirable  qualities  to  be  found  in  a  success- 
ful judge,  one  may,  nevertheless,  be  qualified  to  pass  in  judg- 
ment on  many  occasions  where  the  responsibilities  are  not 
the  greatest,  and  where  real  service  may  be  rendered. 

The  judgment  of  the  stockman  should  enable  him  to  buy 
and  to  develop  his  herd  with  intelligence.  No  man  is  quali- 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  127 

fied  to  manage  any  business  at  the  present  day  who  does  not 
know  the  difference  in  the  values  of  the  goods  he  handles. 
Then  why  should  not  the  man  who  owns  stock  on  the  farm 
be  capable  of  giving  an  intelligent  judgment  as  to  compara- 
tive values  among  his  animals?  A  large  number  of  herds  of 
dairy  cattle  in  the  United  States  have  been  shown  to  be 
unprofitable.  This  fact  is  not,  as  a  rule,  due  to  the  kind  and 
amount  of  food  given,  but  rather  to  the  sort  of  animals  kept. 
The  man  who  knows  how  to  select  the  right  kind  of  dairy 
cows  to  build  up  a  herd  will  find  his  knowledge  a  source  of 
profit  rather  than  loss,  if  he  makes  good  use  of  the  same. 
Without  doubt,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dairy  cows  are 
unprofitable  to  their  owners.  This  fact  in  itself  is  a  good 
reason  why  one  should  study  the  relation  of  form  to  pro- 
duction and  put  into  application  the  knowledge  gained. 

Important  defects  in  animals  are  often  passed  by  un- 
noticed by  men  who  are  not  capable  judges.  The  man  who 
knows  nothing  of  a  horse  and  desires  to  purchase,  if  he  de- 
pends on  his  own  judgment,  is  liable  to  be  deceived  and  to 
buy  something  he  does  not  want.  A  side  bone  or  a  spavin 
may  be  a  little  thing  to  see,  but  its  presence  on  the  horse  is 
a  distinct  imperfection,  as  one  will  quickly  learn  if  one  tries 
to  sell  such  an  animal.  A  good  judge  will  discover  these 
imperfections  and  let  someone  else  be  the  purchaser.  On 
every  hand  are  men  engaged  in  buying  live  stock  who 
have  given  no  serious  study  to  qualify  themselves  for  this 
work,  hence  they  are  often  grievously  disappointed. 

Buying  immature  or  green  animals  that  give  promise  of 
great  development  is  a  specialty  with  some  experts.  Such 
men  are  keen  students  of  animal  form.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
pass  on  the  merits  of  a  mature  horse  that  stands  before  one 
in  perfect  condition,  ready  for  the  show  ring.  It  is  not  so 
easy  a  matter,  however,  to  go  into  the  pasture  and  select  the 
best  prospect  from  a  bunch  of  thin  yearlings  that  have  had 
no  special  care  during  the  warm,  dry  summer  days.  The 


128  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

man  who  goes  to  the  stock-yards  to  buy  a  lot  of  steers  for 
feeding  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  dealers  there,  unless  he  has  the 
necessary  judgment,  not  only  to  know  what  kind  of  cattle 
he  wants,  but  how  to  sort  them  'out.  The  ability  to  select 
wisely  the  green,  untrained  colt  or  promising  heifer  has 
enabled  more  than  one  man  to  find  what  we  sometimes  call 
"a  diamond  in  the  rough." 


Figure  28. — Select  the  best  prospects  from  a  herd  of  thin  yearlings. 
Photograph  from  Henry  W.   Vaughan. 

Many  capable  live-stock  judges  in  one  community  would 
indicate  a  superior  general  average  of  the  animals  there,  with 
a  high  valuation  from  a  commercial  standpoint.  An  example 
of  this  condition  is  seen  in  England  and  Scotland,  where  good 
judges  of  stock  are  comparatively  common.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  observe,  not  only  that  the  flocks  and  herds  of  those 
countries  are  much  superior  to  those  of  any  other  country, 
but  that  the  people  of  the  rest  of  the  world  for  generations 
have  been  sending  their  gold  to  England  and  Scotland  to 
exchange  for  superior  stock.  Most  of  our  improved  breeds 
came  from  Great  Britain,  and  we  sent  there  for  them  because 
their  merit  was  seen  and  appreciated.  Suppose  the  people 
of  some  one  of  our  states  were  to  give  special  attention  to 
the  improvement  of  their  live  stock,  and  the  study  of  animal 
form  became  popular,  what  would  result?  Would  there  not 
be  a  great  improvement  in  the  live  stock  of  that  state,  and 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  129 

would  not  its  wealth  be  thereby  greatly  increased?  In  the  esti- 
mation of  the  unprejudiced  stockman  it  most  certainly  would. 

A  natural  interest  by  man  in  animals,  as  shown  in  sym- 
pathetic care  and  affection,  offers  a  good  reason  for  making 
them  a  subject  of  careful  study.  The  greater  the  intelligence 
with  which  one  can  look  an  animal  over,  the  more  pleasure 
will  be  found  in  the  occupation.  A  business  that  does  not 
offer  an  incentive  to  greater  effort  can  not  profit  a  man  much. 
The  production  of  beautiful  and  useful  animals  can  not  but 
bring  out  the  best  there  is  in  a  man's  character;  while  at  the 
same  time  he  is  rendering  a  service  to  his  fellow  man  by 
producing  something  that  adds  to  the  wealth  of  the  com- 
munity. We  call  a  man  a  great  artist  who  paints  on  canvas 
a  beautiful  picture  of  a  magnificent  horse,  but  what  shall  we 
say  of  the  man  who  bred  and  raised  this  horse  to  his  perfect 
state?  Is  he  not  the  greater  artist  of  the  two? 

The  use  of  the  scale  of  points,  or  score  card,  as  it  is  often 
called,  is  a  first  step  in  the  systematic  education  of  the  per- 
son who  desires  to  learn  how  to  judge  live  stock.  The  scale 
of  points  was  first  originated  about  1828,  on  the  island  of 
Guernsey,  we  are  told,  *when  the  fudges  introduced  it  for 
comparison  in  judging  their  cattle.  The  people  on  the 
island  of  Jersey  also  felt  that  something  should  be  done  to 
improve  their  cattle.  So  they  selected  two  cows,  one  of 
which- they  thought  had  the  nearest  perfect  form  in  the  front 
half  of  the  body,  while  the  other  was  considered  to  have  a 
perfect  rear  half.  Then  they  placed  a  numerical  value  on 
each  of  these  best  halves  of  the  body,  using  these  two  cows 
to  furnish  a  standard  or  model  with  which  to  judge  other 
cows.  They  also  selected  two  bulls,  and  made  a  score  card 
for  the  males  by  the  same  process.  As  a  result  of  this 
unique  method,  the  people  on  Jersey  adopted  in  1834,  "A 
scale  of  points  for  Jersey  cows,"  as  it  was  called.  They 
gave  the  cows  27  points;  and  another  scale  gave  the  bulls, 
and  the  heifers  not  in  milk,  25  points.  The  people  on  the 

*The  Guernsey  Breed.     Charles  L.  Hill,  1917,  p.  52. 


130 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


island  made  a  practical  application  of  the  use  of  the  scale 
by  comparing  their  cattle  with  these  standards.  Much 
benefit  came  from  this  method  of  judging,  and  their  cattle 
were  gradually  improved.  They  revised  this  scale  on  sev- 
eral occasions,  and  among  other  things  finally  adopted  a 
uniform  standard  of  100  points  for  each  sex. 

Since  that  time  score  cards  have  been  much  used  by  men 
interested  in  other  kinds  of  stock,  and  scales  of  points  have 
been  adopted  for  most  of  our  improved  breeds.  Not  only 
that,  but  score  cards  that  apply  only  to  types  of  stock,  such 
as  the  draft  horse,  etc.,  are  commonly  used  in  agricultural 
schools  and  colleges.  The  following  is  a  copy  of  a  score  card 
for  Dorset  Horn  sheep,  that  was  adopted  many  years  ago. 
It  is  given  here  on  account  of  its  concise  form  and  simplicity 
of  expression. 

THE  DORSET  HORN  SHEEP  SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Points  scored 

Perfect 
score 

Score 
of 
animal 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE.      Head  well  up,  eyes  bright  and 
alert;  and  standing  square  on  legs  

20 

HEAD.     Small,  face  white,  nostrils  well  expanded,  nose  and 
lips  pink  in  color                 ' 

HORN.      Neat,  curving  forward,  and  light  in  color.  .  . 
FORETOP  AND  BELLY  COVERING.      Good  foretop  and  well 

10 
10 

NECK       Short  and  round    set  well  on  shoulders        

5 

CHEST       Broad    full    brisket  well  forward 

10 

BACK.      Broad,  straight,  with  well  sprung  ribs  
QUARTERS.      Heavy,  square,  set  on  short,  straight  legs,  well 
apart                                                                     

15 

10 

LEGS       White    with  small    light  colored  hoof 

WOOL.      Medium  quality  and  good  weight,  presenting  an  even, 
smooth,  white  surface  

10 

Total  

100 

An  example  of  the  use  of  a  scale  of  points  is  necessary, 
and  this  of  the  Dorset  will  serve  our  purpose.  Under 
"points  scored' '  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  ten  things  to 
which  attention  is  directed.  Each  of  these  ten  is  given  a 
brief  description  and  a  number,  which  represents  what  the 
stockman  calls  "points."  The  number  20  in  the  column 
named  "perfect  score"  means  that  a  Dorset  sheep  that 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  131 

would  exactly  answer  to  the  description  of  general  appear- 
ance there  given  would  score  20,  or  would  be  perfect  in  this 
one  respect.  If  in  scoring  a  sheep  one  had  the  opinion  that 
each  part  was  perfect,  then  one  should  give  the  full  value  in 
the  blank  space  for  "score  of  animal."  In  such  a  case  the 
sheep  would  score  100,  and  hence  by  the  scale  of  points  would 
be  perfect.  But  we  have  no  such  animal.  It  is  rarely  that 
one  will  score  90  points  or  above,  and  but  few  grade  as  high 
even  as  80.  Suppose  you  were  scoring  a  Dorset  ram.  As 
you  examine  the  animal,  you  are  sure  to  find  him  inferior 
to  perfection  in  some  points.  He  may  carry  his  head  per- 
fectly, the  eye  may  be  above  criticism,  but  you  may  find 
good  reason  to  criticise  the  way  he  stands  on  his  feet.  He 
may  not  be  bad  in  this  respect;  so  you  give  him  17  points 
for  general  appearance  instead  of  20.  Narrow  chests  are 
very  common,  and  our  Dorset  may  show  by  the  close  way 
his  front  legs  are  placed  together,  that  he  lacks  a  broad,  full 
chest;  so  after  consideration  you  give  him  7.5  points  for  this 
part,  which  you  think  is  all  the  credit  he  should  receive. 
Thus  one  goes  through  the  list  of  points  and  examines  the 
animal  systematically  and  critically,  putting  down  the  score 
from  part  to  part,  finally  adding  the  column  made,  and  so 
getting  the  total  points  scored  for  comparison  with  the  per- 
fect Dorset. 

The  value  of  the  score  card  lesson  is  seen  in  several  ways. 
It  trains  the  student  to  examine  the  animal  systematically, 
and  impresses  on  the  mind  the  things  that  should  be  con- 
sidered in  studying  form  and  character.  Attention  is  first 
called  to  the  animal  as  a  whole,  when  character  is  considered, 
as  it  can  be  studied  at  no  better  time,  and  then  the  differ- 
ent parts  in  proper  order  are  carefully  examined  and  rated. 
So  one  learns  to  make  first  a  general  examination,  to  get  the 
balance  of  parts,  the  breed  character,  the  size,  quality,  and 
condition,  and  thus  measure  up  the  entire  animal  from  the 
standpoint  of  appearance.  Then  comes  the  detailed  study 


132  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  head,  next  the  neck,  then  the  breast,  and  so  on.  The 
relationship  of  each  part  to  the  other  must  be  considered  so 
as  to  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  strong  and  weak  points  in  the 
conformation.  Thus  in  the  first  lessons  in  judging,  system- 
atic study  becomes  a  feature  in  the  use  of  the  score  card, 
which  is  a  very  important  lesson  in  itself. 

The  relative  value  of  the  parts  is  also  shown  in  the  use 
of  the  score  card.  When  a  specimen  of  a  breed  is  being 
studied,  we  must  remember  that  we  are  using  a  scale  of 
points  that  has  probably  been  adopted,  after  much  careful 
study  and  comparison,  by  a  committee  of  experienced  men 
most  familiar  with  that  breed.  Thus  we  get  the  best  measure 
possible  of  this  breed,  and  in  the  scale  we  learn  what  parts 
are  most  highly  regarded,  and  which  least.  If  we  are  using 
a  score  card  such  as  relates  to  a  fat  hog,  where  breed  is  not 
considered,  such  as  is  in  common  use  in  the  agricultural 
schools,  then  we  find  that  experts  have  made  this  up  so  as 
to  give  the  proper  values  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 
No  matter  what  kind  of  score  card  we  are  using,  we  may  be 
quite  sure  that  it  will  give  a  recognized  place  and  value  to 
each  part  or  group  of  parts.  The  various  breeds  of  live 
stock  of  much  the  same  type  have  scales  of  points  that  place 
similar  values  on  what  may  be  called  their  most  important 
characters.  For  example,  all  the  dairy  cattle  score  cards 
give  many  points  to  udder,  etc.,  while  those  of  beef  cattle 
give  special  credit  for  breadth  and  thickness  of  back. 

In  the  use  of  figures  in  scoring,  it  is  not  well  to  grade 
any  part  in  too  fine  a  degree.  Suppose  the  ear  is  given  one 
point.  When  so  small  a  number  is  used  to  indicate  per- 
fection, grades  of  .25  or  .50  or  .75  may  be  used  to  express  the 
score  for  that  part,  and  .25  of  one  per  cent  is  small  enough 
to  enable  one  to  express  reasonably  accurate  valuation  of  the 
ear.  In  any  event,  decimals  should  be  used,  and  the  person 
scoring  should  have  his  column  of  figures  properly  arranged, 
with  the  decimal  points  in  line.  When  common  fractions 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  133 

are  used,  the  figures  in  the  column  do  not  stand  out  so  clearly 
in  contrast  as  when  the  decimal  fractions  are  employed. 

The  number  of  points  cut  is  an  expression  sometimes  used 
when  referring  to  the  number  of  points  deducted  from  per- 
fection. If  a  part  in  the  perfect  score  is  credited  with  10, 
and  one  gives  the  animal  in  question  7  points,  then  we  say 
it  has  been  cut  3  points.  Many  judges  write  the  3  on  the  card 
instead  of  the  7.  This  practice  is  wrong.  The  points  cut 
should  not  be  written  down.  We  are  comparing  the  thing 
as  it  exists  in  the  real  animal,  with  the  ideal,  and  this  com- 
parison is  expressed  numerically.  To  put  down  as  points 
that  which  is  lacking,  is  to  compare  nothing  with  something. 
With  our  two  columns,  however,  one  of  the  imperfect  score, 
and  the  other  of  the  perfect,  we  are  able  to  draw  a  proper 
comparison  all  through. 

The  value  of  the  score  of  an  animal  should  not  be  regarded 
too  highly.  The  chief  importance  of  the  score  card  lies  in 
the  first  lessons  in  judging,  in  which  the  different  parts  of 
the  animal,  their  location  and  relative  value  are  impressed 
on  the  mind.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  score  an  animal 
satisfactorily  under  the  varying  conditions  of  living  flesh. 
To-day  we  may  score  an  animal  75,  and  to-morrow  perhaps 
71.  The  horse  we  scored  yesterday  may  show  more  char- 
acter and  style  to-day  than  he  showed  24  hours  ago.  We 
do  not  know  how  to  express  in  cold  figures  these  things  we 
see  in  the  beast  before  us.  We  can  tell  what  we  see,  and,  if 
we  have  two  or  more  animals  before  us  for  judgment,  it  may 
be  an  easy  thing  to  place  them  in  their  relative  order  of 
merit,  and  with  good  reasons.  Yet  these  reasons  can  not 
be  so  clearly  shown  by  a  column  of  figures  on  a  score  card. 
On  various  occasions  efforts  have  been  made  to  judge  ani- 
mals on  the  basis  of  the  scale  of  points,  and  to  make  show- 
ring  awards  accordingly.  This  plan  has  been  carefully  tried 
by  many  of  our  best  judges,  and  has  very  generally  proved 
unsatisfactory,  and  for  the  reason  given.  To-day  the  scor- 


134  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ing  method  is  generally  discarded,  except  at  poultry  shows, 
and  here  it  has  given  such  dissatisfaction  that  it  has  been 
abolished  in  many  cases.  In  spite  of  this  criticism,  we  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  value  of  the  scale  of  points  as  a  standard 
and  what  it  may  teach. 

Judging  by  comparison  is  the  next  step  to  be  taken  after 
a  few  lessons  with  the  score  card.  This  means  keeping  in 
one's  mind  the  essential  features  of  the  scale  of  points,  and 
then  studying  one  or  more  animals  of  a  kind  and  placing 
mental  values  on  the  subject  or  subjects  examined.  A  per- 
son should  make  himself  familiar  with  the  different  types  or 
breeds  that  he  is  interested  in,  and  at  every  opportunity 
give  personal  study  to  individual  animals.  In  a  matter  of 
comparison,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  important 
features  to  be  considered,  and  then  judge  the  animals  as  in- 
telligently as  possible.  In  judging  by  comparison,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  line  up  the  horses  or  cattle  or  sheep  side  by  side,  so 
that  they  will  face  in  the  same  direction.  Hogs  are  usually 
examined  in  small  groups,  being  kept  together  with  the  help 
of  hurdles.*  The  front  feet  should  stand  slightly  higher 
than  the  hind  feet,  and  there  should  be  space  enough  for  the 
judge  to  pass  easily  between  the  animals  to  make  his  inspec- 
tion. The  center  of  an  open  space,  with  a  firm,  clean  floor, 
is  most  desirable. 

When  the  heads  are  lined  up,  the  other  parts  are  in  the 
best  position  for  inspection.  The  judge  then  begins  his  com- 
parison, first  walking  around  the  line  of  animals  and  noting 
from  different  points  of  view  the  general  comparison  of  one 
with  another.  It  is  a  good  plan  also  to  examine  the  animals 
in  single  file,  one  directly  behind  another.  Thus  one  secures 
quite  a  different  point  of  view,  and  obtains  an  outline  of 
head,  back  and  quarters,  and  easily  notes  the  difference  in 
depth  of  body  and  length  of  leg.  In  British  shows  the 
judges  commonly  have  the  animals  parade  before  them,  in 

*A  hurdle  is  similar  to  a  small  section  of  a  light  panel  fence.  Some  hurdles  weigh 
only  3  or  4  pounds  and  are  easily  handled.  Others  may  be  longer  and  heavier, 
requiring  two  men  to  handle. 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  135 

order  to  study  them  when  in  motion,  and  detect  unsound- 
ness,  poor  action,  etc.  This  custom  is  steadily  growing  in 
favor  in  America.  The  judge  must  necessarily  place  first 
in  rank  the  animal  that  shows  the  most  breed  or  type  char- 
acter, that  has  the  most  complete  balance  of  parts,  the  most 
perfection  in  various  details,  and  the  least  number  of  faults. 
Emphasis,  however,  must  be  placed  on  the  special  purpose 
of  the  animal  under  consideration,  as  weight  in  heavy  draft 
horses,  udder  development  with  dairy  cows,  or  character  of 
fleece  with  Merino  sheep.  For  example,  most  of  the  scales 
of  points  of  the  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  devote  about  one  third  of 
the  total  scale  emphasizing  the  size,  form,  etc.,  of  the  udder, 


Figure  29. — "In  British  shows  the  judges  commonly  have  the  animals  parade 
before  them."  Photograph  by  the  author  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  at  the 
annual  Spring  show. 

teats,  milk  veins,  and  wells.     Such  special  features  must  be 
kept  in  mind  by  the  judge  as  of  real  importance. 

In  placing  the  animals,  it  becomes  a  question  of  prompt 
decision  in  sorting  out  and  getting  the  individuals  in  one, 
two,  three  order  of  relative  merit.  In  large  rings  at  live- 
stock shows,  j  udges  often  divide  the  animals  into  two  groups, 
those  that  they  consider  worthy  candidates  for  the  prize  list, 
and  those  that  are  not.  The  former  group  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  "the  short  leet,"  a  British  expression  for  the 


136  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

choicer  individuals.  After  the  short  leet  is  selected,  the 
other  group  is  usually  sent  to  the  stalls.  In  most  compara- 
tive rings,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  quickly  the  best  animal; 
but  as  one  deals  with  the  stock  farther  down  the  line,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  decide  on  the  relative  demerits  rather 
than  the  merits  of  each,  and  to  place  highest  those  that  show 
the  fewest  undesirable  features,  a  matter  in  which  judges 
sometimes  differ  quite  a  bit.  Naturally  we  do  not  all  see 
things  alike;  and  so  the  judge  who  does  his  work  carefully 
and  comes  to  a  decision  independently  of  the  views  of  others, 
is  assuming  his  responsibility  in  the  right  way. 

Keeping  notes  on  animals  under  comparison  is  a  very 
good  plan.  It  is  customary  in  classes  of  stock  judged  by 
students  to  give  each  animal  a  number  or  letter.  These 
marks  may  be  written  on  common  gummed  paper  labels,  and 
stuck  on  the  rumps  of  horses  or  cattle,  on  the  tops  of  the 
heads  of  sheep,  and  on  the  backs  of  hogs.  Then  on  a  small 
card  or  folded  slip  of  paper  one  may  give  space  to  each  ani- 
mal under  its  number,  and  make  brief  notes  of  certain  fea- 
tures of  importance.  These  notes  are  often  instructive  and 
suggestive,  and  aid  the  young  judge  in  keeping  things  in 
mind.  In  the  student's  judging  contests  of  to-day,  the  boys 
are  allowed  to  take  notes  in  this  way  and  use  them  for 
reference  up  to  the  time  of  appearing  before  the  judges  to 
give  their  reasons. 

In  discussing  an  animal  being  judged,  it  is  desirable  to 
do  so  briefly  and  clearly,  emphasizing  the  important  things, 
such  as  character,  general  conformation,  quality,  back,  body 
capacity,  chest  development,  or  hind  quarters.  Much,  of 
course,  will  depend  on  the  special  case  in  hand.  Then,  if  one 
is  describing  an  animal,  or  is  comparing  two  or  more,  the 
frequent  use  of  such  expressions  as  "he  has  a  good  back," 
or  "she  has  the  best  quality,"  are  to  be  discouraged.  The 
words  good  or  best  in  these  cases  really  convey  no  specific 
information.  Instead,  if  one  says,  "He  has  a  long,  wide, 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS  137 

muscular  back;"  or  "She  excels  the  other  in  quality,  as  seen 
in  a  fine,  silky  coat  of  hair  and  a  mellow,  elastic  skin,"  then 
the  reasons  given  will  be  clearer  and  convey  more  meaning 
than  simply  "good"  and  "best." 

The  decision  of  the  judge  is  always  open  to  criticism. 
Being  only  human,  we  see  things  from  different  points  of 
view;  so  why  should  we  not  differ?  The  courts  do  not  all 
agree,  as  is  often  seen,  one  court  reversing  the  decision  of 
another.  Two  things,  however,  on  the  part  of  a  judge  are 
most  important:  one  is  honesty;  the  other  is  knowledge  of 
his  business.  If  one  has  these  qualifications,  and  then  comes 
to  decisions  with  independence,  regardless  of  what  any- 
one else  thinks,  one's  work  as  a  judge  will,  as  a  rule,  be  satis- 
factory and  the  judgments  will  command  respect. 

BY  THE  WAY,  DO  YOU  RECALL 

1.  The  meaning  of  the  word  conformation? 

2.  Why  one  man  is  a  good  judge  and  another  is  not? 

3.  The  advantage   that   has   come  to  England  from  having  many 

good  judges  of  live  stock? 

4.  The  condition  under  which  the  scale  of  points  originated? 

5.  The  general  application  of  the  scale  of  points? 

6.  How  figures  should  be  used  in  scoring? 

7.  The  chief  importance  of  the  score  card? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  judging  by  comparison? 

9.  What  to  emphasize  in  judging  dairy  cattle? 

10.  The  most  desirable  method  of  discussing  animal  form? 

11.  Some  desirable  qualifications  for  a  judge? 

WOULD  IT  NOT  INTEREST  YOU  TO  KNOW 

12.  Who  are  the  most  intelligent  judges  in  your  county? 

13.  Who  some  of  the  judges  were  at  your  State  Fair? 

14.  Who  judges  grade  and  cross-bred  fat  cattle  at  the  International 

Live  Stock  Exposition? 

15.  On  what  basis  men  are  selected  as  judges,  expecially  at  county 

fairs? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ANIMAL  TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE 

Farm  animals  in  early  days  in  America  were  usually  very 
inferior.  The  settlers  of  New  England  and  the  older  states 
did  not  give  much  attention  to  live  stock.  Until  we  had 
large  cities  we  had  no  important  live-stock  markets.  The 
farmers  produced  but  little  more  than  was  needed  for  the 
local  home  sales.  In  1830  the  first  railway  was  built  in 
America.  Before  that  time,  people  drove  live  stock  long 
distances  to  market.  As  early  as  1804,  cattle  were  driven 
overland  from  Ohio  to  Baltimore  to  find  buyers.  West  of 
the  Mississippi,  large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  developed 
with  the  settlement  of  the  country.  There  were  great  drives 
of  cattle  and  sheep  overland  to  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  and 
other  places.  It  was  not  till  1865  that  the  Union  Stock 
Yards  of  Chicago  opened  for  business.  Now  it  is  much  the 
largest  live-stock  market  in  the  world. 

The  study  of  animal  form  in  a  large  way  really  began 
with  the  selling  of  stock  in  the  market.  At  first  people 
were  not  very  particular.  An  increase  in  population,  how- 
ever, increased  the  demand  for  meat.  Then  men  began  to 
buy  from  the  farmer  and  to  sell  animals  in  the  markets. 
These  sellers  naturally  noticed  certain  differences  in  their 
stock.  They  saw  that  some  beasts  served  a  given  purpose 
better  than  others,  and  that  some  were  really  worth  more 
than  others  for  the  same  purpose.  So  the  men  who  sold  in 
the  markets  began  to  use  special  words  to  indicate  the  kind 
of  stock  under  discussion.  At  first  it  was  only  a  "good" 
animal,  or  a  "poor"  one.  Then  other  words  came  into  use  to 
show  still  finer  differences.  If  one  examines  the  market  quo- 
tations in  the  early  numbers  of  the  oldest  agricultural  papers, 

138 


ANIMAL   TYPE  AND  ITS  IMPORTANCE  139 

one  will  find  just  such  words  as  "good"  and  "poor",  etc., 
used  in  references  to  market  live  stock.  In  the  course  of 
time,  people  began  to  see  that  farm  animals  differed  in  type. 
The  word  type,  as  applied  to  live  stock,  refers  to  the 
special  form  or  purpose  of  an  animal.  For  example,  we  say 
that  a  horse  is  of  the  draft  type.  This  term  means  that  he  is 
large  and  strong,  and  especially  formed  to  haul  heavy  loads. 
As  stockmen  use  this  word,  however,  it  does  not  mean  that 
the  animal  referred  to  is  perfect.  It  is  simply  an  expression 
that  the  horse  or  cow,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  belongs  to  a 
special  group  in  which  we  find  others  of  various  degrees  of 
merit.  The  word  type  has  not  been  used  many  years  by 
stockmen.  At  the  present  time,  however,  all  our  farm  ani- 
mals may  be  separated  into  fairly  distinct,  well-known  types. 
The  more  simple  classifications  are  as  follows: 

HORSES  CATTLE 

1.  Draft  type  1.     Beef  type 

2.  Coach  or  carriage  type  2.     Dairy  type 

3.  Light  harness  or  speed  type  3.     Dual  or  general-purpose 

4.  Ponies  type 

SHEEP  SWINE 

1.  Mutton  type  1.     Lard  type 

2.  Wool,  or  Merino,  type  2.     Bacon  type 

All  our  farm  animals  may  be  sorted,  and  each  one  placed 
in  a  group  representing  one  of  these  types.  Each  of  our 
breeds  of  live  stock,  also,  has  one  or  more  types.  Where 
there  is  more  than  one  type  in  a  breed,  it  is  the  result  of 
different  lines  of  breeding. 

The  grouping  of  live  stock  on  the  market  into  classes  was 
the  final  result  of  the  development  of  the  modern  live-stock 
trade.  As  the  population  grew,  the  demand  for  variety  and 
for  special  purposes  increased  as  never  before.  There  were 
new  uses  for  horses,  and  meat  animals  were  sold  for  a  much 
greater  variety  of  needs  than  used  to  be  thought  possible. 
So,  to-day,  we  find  in  the  big  markets  that  all  types  of  live 
stock  are  grouped  into  different  commercial  classes,  and  then 
each  class  is  graded  according  to  its  merit.  For  example, 


140 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


here  we  have  the  beef  type,  and  within  this  a  number  of 
different  classes.  One  class,  known  in  the  larger  stock  yards 
as  beef  cattle,  is  regarded  as  fattened  and  finished  for  the 
butcher,  being  ready  for  killing.  Another  class,  known  as 
stackers  and  feeders,  is  sold  to  go  back  to  the  farms  for  further 
feeding  and  fattening.  Another  class,  called  butcher  stock, 
consists  of  fat  cows  and  heifers.  Then  there  are  various 
other  classes  of  stock,  such  as  calves,  butcher  hogs,  western 
lambs,  feeding  sheep,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  included  in  the 
different  types  described. 

The  market  grades  of  live  stock  are  also  important. 
Each  class  is  divided  into  different  grades.     Beginning  with 

the  best  and 
grading  toward 
the  poorest,  these 
grades  with  meat 
stock  in  general, 
in  each  class,  are 
as  follows:  prime, 
choice,  good,  me- 
dium, common, 
inferior.  Some 
other  terms  are 
often  used,  such 
as  extra  prime, 
good  to  medium, 
etc.  These  special  terms,  of  course,  are  used  to  express  the  rela- 
tive values  of  animals  of  the  same  general  class.  A  prime 
steer,  for  example,  is  one  with  the  largest  amount  of  high- 
priced  meat  that  the  butcher  thinks  will  cut  out  to  the  best 
advantage.  So,  in  the  prime  animal  the  buyer  looks  for  a 
wide  back,  deep  body,  thick,  meaty  hind  quarters,  and  a 
frame  entirely  covered  with  a  smooth,  thick  layer  of  flesh 
that  will  cut  up  well  with  as  little  offal  as  possible.  To  ensure 
small  waste,  an  animal  must  be  what  we  call  well-fattened, 


Figure  30. — Beef  type,  showing  market  cuts.     I,  Chuck; 
II,    Prime   of  rib;   III,    Loin;    IV,    Rump;   V,   Shank; 
VI,   Plate;   VII,   Flank;   VIII,   Round.     Photograph 
from  Prof.   C.  T.   Conklin. 


ANIMAL    TYPE   AND  ITS   IMPORTANCE 


141 


and  have  no  coarseness  or  heaviness  of  bone.  As  one  goes 
down  the  line  of  grades,  each  of  these  desirable  features  is 
less  to  be  seen.  Thus  an  inferior  steer  would  show  a  small 
percentage  of  high-priced  cuts,  would  lack  in  condition  and 
quality  of  flesh,  and  show  much  waste  at  slaughter.  These 
grades  have  the  same  relative  importance  in  live  stock  as 
similar  terms  have  in  grading  corn  or  wheat.  For  compari- 
son, we  have  dent  corn  for  one  type  and  sugar  corn  for 
another.  Dent  corn  we  classify  into  white  and  yellow,  and 
then  grade  each 
of  these  as  No.  1, 
No.  2,No.3,etc., 
the  best  being 
No.  1,  compar- 
able to  the  term 
prime  in  live 
stock.  Put  in  a 
simple  diagram, 
the  relation  of 
the  classes  and 
grades  may  be 
shown  as  follows : 


Figure  31. — The  wool  producing  type, 
the  author. 


Photograph  by 


BEEF  TYPE 


CLASSES — 


[Beef  cattle 

\  Butcher  stock 
[Stockers  and  feeders 


GRADES — 
[Prime 
|. Choice 
.<Good 
Medium 
Common 
I  Inferior 


All  markets  do  not  have  exactly  the  same  classes  and 
grades  of  stock.  The  larger  a  market,  the  more  the  dealers 
divide  animals  into  classes  and  grades,  for  the  widest  demand 
for  different  kinds  here  exist.  In  the  small  market  not  so 
much  attention  is  paid  to  the  details  of  class;  but  the  dealers 
are  quick  to  recognize  the  merits  of  a  grade.  In  some 
markets  we  find  the  people  more  interested  in  one  kind  of 
stock  than  another.  St.  Louis  is  a  noted  horse  market, 


142 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Buffalo  has  long  been  famous  for  sheep,  and  Chicago  is  the 
great  hog  center.  These  large  markets,  to  a  certain  extent, 
require  other  markets,  through  a  live-stock  exchange,  to 
classify  and  grade  animals  so  that  selling  values  are  fairly 
comparable.  In  small  towns  without  regular  markets,  merit 
in  an  animal  is  easily  seen  by  men  who  buy  if  they  have  a 
fair  knowledge  of  type  and  its  meaning. 

A  knowledge  of  animal  type  is  necessary  if  one  wishes  to 
understand  why  some  animals  serve  one  purpose  and  some 
another.  There  is  a  distinct  relation  of  the  form  of  the 
animal  to  its  special  use.  The  race  horse  is  light  of  body, 

narrow  but  deep  of  chest, 
has  splendid  lung  capaci- 
ty, has  slender  but  strong 
legs,  is  very  muscular, 
and  is  built  for  speed. 
The  Arab  horse,  the  Brit- 
ish Thoroughbred,  .  and 
the  American  trotter  each 
has  these  features  well 
marked,  if  he  is  a  good 
Photograph  specimen  of  the  type. 
The  less  he  has  of  these 
qualities,  the  poorer  he  is  as  a  race  horse.  A  Merino  sheep 
of  the  A  type  is  rather  narrow  of  back,  long  of  rib,  has  short 
fine  legs,  is  very  muscular,  and  the  entire  body,  including 
head  and  legs,  is  heavily  covered  in  folds  with  a  fine,  greasy 
fleece.  This  type  of  sheep  is  formed  to  produce  wool,  and 
has  very  little  value  as  meat.  The  Merino  sheep  of  Spain, 
of  Australia,  or  Ohio,  if  of  the  A  type,  are  all  similar,  each 
producing  wool  of  the  finest  sort.  The  more  the  inclination 
to  mutton  development,  the  less  fine  and  heavy  is  the  fleece. 
The  hog  best  suited  to  lard  production  has  a  short  neck, 
wide  back,  deep  sides,  large  hams,  and  short  legs;  and  when 
well  fattened,  his  body  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  fat. 


Figure  32. — The  lard  hog  type, 
by  the  author. 


ANIMAL    TYPE   AND  ITS   IMPORTANCE  143 

This  type  of  hog  has  been  bred  in  America  to  produce  fat  in 
the  extreme.  The  narrower  his  back,  the  longer  his  head, 
neck  and  legs,  the  less  fat  meat  will  he  produce.  The  race 
horse,  the  Merino  sheep  and  the  lard  type  hog,  each  has  been 
bred  to  serve  its  special  purpose.  The  intelligent  stockman  can 
tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  animal  he  is  looking  at  with  the 
thought  of  purchase  is  of  a  desired  type,  whether  it  will  com- 
mand a  high  place  in  the  market  for  value,  or  if  its  merits 
are  such  as  to  attract  no  special  interest.  The  animals  which 
most  nearly  represent  the  type  are  fewest  in  numbers,  and 
bring  the  highest  prices.  One  reason  why  we  do  not  have 
more  animals  of  the  better  kind  is  because  farmers  and  stock- 
men themselves  do  not  know  the  importance  of  type.  Be- 
fore one  is  capable  of  becoming  a  high-class  breeder  or 
feeder  of  live  stock,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  this  subject. 
One  must  know  the  relation  of  animal  form  to  the  purpose 
it  will  best  serve. 

AMONG  OTHER  THINGS,  KEEP  IN  MIND 

1.  How  they  shipped  cattle  to  market  in  early  days. 

2.  The  reason  for  studying  animal  form. 

3.  The  meaning  of  the  word  "type." 

4.  The  meaning  of  commercial  classes  of  stock. 

5.  The  relative  importance  of  the  grades  of  stock. 

6.  The  class  of  stock  in  which  certain  markets  specialize. 

7.  The  relationship  of  form  to  purpose. 

SUPPOSE  YOU  MAKE  THESE  OBSERVATIONS 

8.  How  meat  animals  are  shipped  to  market  in  your  vicinity. 

9.  What  market  classes  are  reported  in  your  local  paper. 

10.  What  types  of  horses  do  you  find  on  the  streets  about  town? 

11.  Compare    the    horses   on    the  farm    with    which    you  are  best 

acquainted. 

12.  What  type  of  horse  is  most  in  demand  near  your  home? 

13.  Which  is  the  more  popular,  beef  or  dairy  type  in  your  county,  and 

why? 

14.  Are  there  any  feeders  of  stock  within  your  acquaintance,  and,  if  so, 

what  type  or  types  are  they  feeding? 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

The  origin  of  the  horse  was  for  many  years  not  well 
understood.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  the  domestic  horse 
was  descended  from  the  wild  ass  that  lived  in  A-frica  and 
Asia.  It  is  now  pretty  well  agreed  that  the  horse  of  to-day 
is  descended  from  animals  that  lived  in  past  geological  times. 
Fossil  remains  of  horses  have  been  found  in  different  parts  of 
North  and  South  America  and  in  Europe.  These  are  known 
as  prehistoric  horses,  because  they  lived  on  the  earth  before 
man  left  any  recorded  history. 

The  prehistoric  horse  in  the  earliest  geological  times,  say 
three  million  years  ago,  was  very  small.  He  was  probably 
about  as  big  as  a  fox  terrier,  and  is  known  as  the  "dawn 
horse."  During  the  development  of  the  earth's  surface,  the. 
prehistoric  horse  passed  through  gradual  and  very  important 
changes.  There  was  an  increase  in  size,  and  his  body,  legs, 
and  head  became  more  and  more  like  those  of  the  modern 
horse.  The  skeletons  of  these  early  horses  have  been  found 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  but  more  especially  in  North 
America,  in  the  far  West,  in  Wyoming  and  the  Bad  Lands 
of  that  section.  Scientific  men  have  put  the  fossil  parts  of 
these  horses  together  so  completely  that  their  development 
is  clearly  understood.  From  this  first  period  up  to  the  last, 
skeletons  more  or  less  complete  have  been  found,  showing 
the  gradual  increase  in  size  and  general  development  through 
which  this  prehistoric  horse  passed.  In  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York  City  is  a 
remarkable  collection  of  skeletons  of  the  horse,  from  the 
earliest  form  through  the  several  stages  up  to  the  present 
day  form.  These  prehistoric  skeletons  are  grouped  in  their 

144 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  145 

natural  order,  thus  forming  a  most  instructive  collection. 

So  we  know  that  the  horse  has  lived  in  America  for  mil- 
lions of  years.  Before  the  time  of  Columbus  and  the  early 
explorers  nothing  is  known  of  the  use  of  domesticated 
animals  either  in  North  or  South  America. 

The  first  use  of  the  horse  by  man  is  supposed  to  have 


Figure  33. — A  wild  pony  captured  in  Central  Asia,  owned  by  the  New  York 
Zoological  Park.     Photograph  by  Edwin  R.  Sanborn. 

been  for  food.  Later  he  became  domesticated,  and  was  used 
for  bearing  burdens  on  his  back.  There  are  some  forms  of 
ponies  at  the  present  time  that  are  supposed  to  be  closely 
related  in  appearance  to  the  more  recent  prehistoric  horse. 
Some  years  ago  in  central  Asia,  true  wild  horses  of  pony  size 
were  discovered  by  a  famous  Russian  explorer.  These  and 


146  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  rough  ponies  of  Iceland  and  northern  Europe  are  prob- 
ably closely  related  to  the  later  form  of  prehistoric  horses. 

The  development  of  the  breeds  of  horses  has  been  due 
to  different  conditions.  Climate,  food,  and  man,  have  each 
had  a  very  important  influence.  A  mild  climate  and  abun- 
dant food  no  doubt  caused  the  horse  to  become  gradually 
larger  than  where  the  climate  was  cold  and  food  not  abun- 
dant. The  Shetland  pony  comes  from  a  region  in  the  North 
Sea  where  the  weather  is  very  severe  and  food  is  never 
plentiful.  So  this  pony  on  its  native  island  is  very  small. 
In  his  American  home,  however,  on  the  western  prairie, 
where  food  is  -abundant,  and  the  climate  mild,  he  develops 
into  a  greater  size.  The  horses  from  hot  climates  have 
always  been  more  active  than  those  from  cold.  Thus  in 
northern  Africa  the  Arab  horse  has  developed  into  an  animal 
full  of  grace  and  activity.  So  we  see  that  breeds  probably 
gradually  developed  in  certain  localities,  and  that  different 
causes  helped  to  bring  about  the  final  result.  There  are 
many  breeds  of  horses  and  ponies  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  The  following,  however,  are  the  only  ones  common 
in  America,  that  should  especially  interest  us. 

The  Arab  horse  originated  in  the  desert  region  of  north- 
ern Africa,  where  it  has  been  known  since  long  before  the 
time  of  Christ.  The  Arab  is  a  saddle  horse,  but  usually  is  a 
pony  in  size.  The  horses  from  Arabia  and  the  Orient  have 
had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  improvement  of  the  horse  in 
Europe.  Between  1700  and  1800,  many  Oriental  horses  were 
taken  to  England.  Their  blood  was  mingled  with  the  horses 
of  that  country,  and  especially  with  the  race-horse  type,  by 
which  a  great  improvement  in  form  and  speed  was  secured. 
Arab  horses  should  be  from  14  to  14^  hands  high,  have 
beautiful,  intelligent  heads;  backs  especially  suited  to  the 
saddle;  and  have  strong,  muscular  quarters  and  legs.  The 
pure  Arabian  may  be  gray,  white,  bay,  chestnut,  or  black. 
He  is  not  of  special  value  in  America.  He  was  first  brought 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


147 


to  this  country  about  1760,  though  but  few  pure-bred  ones 
are  here  now,  and  the  breed  has  not  grown  in  favor.  The 
white  or  spotted  horses  often  seen  with  circuses  are  rarely 
pure-bred,  and  perhaps  come  from  Turkey,  Barbary,  or 
elsewhere  in  the  Orient,  or  have  been  foaled  in  America. 

The  Thoroughbred  horse  is  of  British  breeding.  In  early 
days  in  England  the  horse  was  used  largely  for  war.  He 
had  to  be  strong,  in  order  to  carry  men  who  wore  heavy 
coats  of  mail.  After  armor  became  unpopular,  the  people 
began  to  make  more  use 
of  horses  for  other  pur- 
poses. King  James  I.,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  established  the 
race  track,  and  since  then 
horse  racing  has  been  very 
popular  in  that  country 
and  in  France.  It  was 
then  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Thoroughbred 
began.  The  people  wanted 
a  race  horse.  They  took 
their  native  light  horses 
that  showed  speed  and  improved  them  by  the  use  of  Arab, 
Turk,  and  other  racing  blood  imported  from  Africa,  Turkey, 
and  France.  The  people  became  much  interested  in  breed- 
ing these  running  horses,  and,  as  a  result,  developed  the 
Thoroughbred  into  the  fastest  and  best-bred  horse  in  the 
world.  Three  imported  Oriental  horses,  the  Darley  Arabian, 
the  Byerly  Turk,  and  the  Godolphin  Barb  played  a  most 
important  part  in  improving  the  early  race-horse  stock  in 
England.  Descended  from  these  were  three  English-bred 
horses,  Herod,  Eclipse,  and  Matchem,  that  are  very  famous 
ancestors  of  modern  Thoroughbreds.  This  breed  of  horses 
has  a  fine,  lean,  medium-sized  head;  a  long,  slender  neck;  a 


Figure  34.  Thoroughbred  horse,  Hanover, 
one  of  the  greatest  American  sires  of  the 
breed.  Photograph  by  the  author. 


148  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

narrow,  deep  chest;  a  long,  sloping  shoulder;  a  short,  strong 
back;  very  long,  muscular  hind  parts;  and  legs  that  are  short, 
lean,  and  strong,  with  the  best  of  feet.  The  skin  is  thin,  and 
the  hair  fine  and  silky.  The  most  desired  height  is  15  to 
15j/£  hands,  and  the  most  common  colors  are  bay,  brown, 
chestnut,  or  black,  though  there  are  other  colors.  A  fine 
disposition  and  great  courage  are  features  of  this  noted  breed. 

The  Thoroughbred  was  first  brought  to  America  in  1730, 
and  since  then,  until  recently,  large  numbers  have  been 
imported.  This  horse  is  raced  under  the  saddle  with  a  man 
called  a  jockey  on  his  back.  The  fastest  record  of  a  horse 
race  of  any  kind  was  made  by  Roamer  at  Saratoga,  New 
York,  in  1918,  he  running  a  mile  in  1 : 34  4-5.  Thoroughbreds 
have  sold  for  enormous  sums,  a  number  of  them  having 
changed  hands  at  prices  ranging  from  $100,000  to  $200,000. 
The  Thoroughbred  has  been  much  used  in  the  past  in  America 
to  improve  our  racing  stock,  but  at  present  is  not  popular 
excepting  for  running  races  in  which  gambling  is  a  prominent 
feature.  As  betting  at  horse  races  is  to-day  a  violation  of 
the  law  in  most  states,  this  fact  has  done  much  to  discourage 
the  breeding  of  Thoroughbreds  in  America.  In  England 
and  France,  conditions  are  different.  This  breed  has  had 
a  great  history,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  it  can  not  be  popu- 
lar in  America,  except  as  connected  with  gambling.  Many 
persons  in  speaking  of  live  stock  use  the  word  "thorough- 
bred," when  they  mean  pure-bred.  Thoroughbred,  as  applied 
to  animals,  is  correct  only  when  referring  to  this  breed  of 
horses,  which  fact  the  student  of  live-stock  should  remember. 

The  American  saddle  horse  is  a  breed  that  has  developed 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Missouri.  Its  ancestry  comes  with  the  mingling 
of  the  blood  of  the  Thoroughbred  and  well  made,  easy- 
moving,  native  saddle  stock.  A  Thoroughbred  horse  named 
Denmark,  sired  by  an  imported  horse,  was  one  of  the  most 
famous  early  sires  of  this  breed.  The  American  saddle 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


149 


horse  shows  much  style  in  carriage  of  head  and  arch  of  neck 
and  tail.  He  stands  from  15  to  15^2  hands  high,  and  often 
weighs  about  1,000  pounds.  His  most  frequent  colors  are 
bay,  brown,  or  black.  This  breed  of  horses  is  growing  more 
and  more  into  favor  on  account  of  its  extremely  easy  gait. 
Saddlers  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  One  has  the  walk- 


Figure  35. — American  Saddle  Horse,   Kentucky's  Choice. 
The    National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 


Photograph   from 


trot-canter  gaits  common  with  all  saddle  horses.  The  other 
class  has  five  gaits,  the  walk-trot-canter,  the  rack,  and  the 
running  walk,  or  fox  trot,  gaits  especially  found  with  this 
breed.  If  a  horse  can  show  these  five  gaits,  he  is  called  a 
gaited  horse.  If  he  has  only  the  first  three,  he  is  known  as 


150  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

plain  gaited.  American  saddle  horses  are  very  popular  in 
certain  parts  of  the  country.  Those  of  the  better  class,  and 
educated  to  show  their  gaits  well,  bring  high  prices.  In  1913 
the  horse  My  Major  Dare  sold  for  $10,000. 

The  American  trotter  or  pacer  has  its  origin  in  the  light- 
weight trotting  and  running  horses  of  Great  Britain  first 
brought  to  America.  One  of  these,  a  Thoroughbred  named 
Messenger,  imported  in  1788,  through  his  great-grandson, 
Hambletonian  10,  did  much  for  trotting  blood.  For  many 
years  we  have  had  in  this  country  what  are  known  as  light 
harness  horses  which  are  commonly  referred  to  as  trotters. 
They  were  so  called  because,  when  they  moved  faster  than 
a  walk,  their  gait  was  a  trot,  a  movement  of  the  front  foot 
on  one  side  and  the  hind  foot  on  the  opposite  side  at  about 
the  same  time.  The  pacer  moves  back  or  forward  at  the 
same  time,  the  feet  on  the  same  side  of  the  body.  The  pace 
is  about  three  seconds  faster  as  a  gait  than  the  trot,  but  is 
not  regarded  as  an  attractive  movement.  Occasionally  a 
horse  may  be  taught  to  trot  or  pace  as  desired.  Some 
famous  race  horses  have  both  trotting  and  pacing  records. 

The  trotter  or  pacer  is  not  a  true  example  of  a  breed, 
because  he  has  been  mixed  so  much  in  the  past  in  this 
country  with  all  kinds  of  blood  ancestry.  The  principal 
idea  seems  to  have  been  to  get  speed.  Trotters  of  this  sort 
are  often  referred  to  as  "Standard  Bred."  That  means  that 
they  have  official  records  of  2:30  (2  minutes,  30  seconds),  or 
better,  or  are  from  stock  registered  in  the  American  Trotting 
Register.  A  nice  type  of  trotter  or  pacer  should  weigh 
around  1,000  pounds,  and  have  a  lean,  intelligent  head;  a 
refined  and  graceful  neck;  sloping,  well  laid  shoulders;  be 
narrow  on  top  over  the  shoulders;  have  a  strong,  fairly  level 
back;  a  muscular  rump  with  tail  set  high;  a  deep,  round 
body;  and  legs  short,  clean,  and  fine-boned  and  good  feet. 
This  horse  picks  up  his  feet  with  snap,  and  moves  off  smoothly 
and  easily.  The  coat  is  of  different  colors,  with  bay  or 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


151 


brown  most  common.  The  disposition  is  generally  good, 
though  it  naturally  varies.  This  American-bred  horse  is  the 
fastest  trotter  in  the  world.  Peter  Manning  holds  the  world's 
trotting  record  for  the  mile,  in  1 : 57%  (one  minute,  57% 
seconds) ;  and  Dan  Patch  the  pacing  record  of  1 : 55%  for  the 
same  distance.  During  111  years,  from  August  25,  1810, 
when  a  horse  named  Boston  trotted  a  mile  in  2:48^,  to 
October  6,  1921,  when  Peter  Manning  trotted  a  mile  in 
1 : 57%,  the  mile  trotting  record  was  reduced  50%  seconds, 
or  an  average  of  hardly 
one  half  second  a  year. 
Lou  Dillon,  a  beautiful 
little  mare,  long  held  the 
trotting  record  in  a  race 
against  time,  making  a 
mile,  in  1903,  in  1 : 58^- 
This  record,  however, 
was  made  with  the  aid 
of  a  shield  to  keep  the 
wind  from  affecting  her 
speed.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  records,  as  half- 
mile,  mile,  two-mile, 
fastest  new  performer, 
fastest  mare,  etc.  Thousands  of  horses  have  trotted  a 
mile  in  2: 30,  or  better,  and  many  even  as  fast  as  2: 10. 

There  is  a  number  of  famous  trotting  and  pacing  fami- 
lies, of  which  the  Hambletonian,  Mambrino,  Clay,  Pilot,  Hal, 
and  Morgan  are  the  best  known.  Among  the  most  famous 
trotters  that  have  lived  in  recent  years  are  the  following: 
Maud  S.  2:08%,  Nancy  Hanks  2:04,  Cresceus  2: 02%,  The 
Harvester  2:01,  Lou  Dillon  1:58*4  Uhlan  1:58,  and  Peter 
Manning  1:57%.  Among  pacers  are  Hal  Pointer  2:05%, 
Star  Pointer  1 : 59%,  Minor  Heir  1 : 59,  and  Dan  Patch  1 : 55%. 
Trotters  and  pacers  have  sold  for  very  high  prices.  Arion, 


Figure  36. — Trotting  horse  Uhlan  with  record 
1:58.  Photograph  from  National  Stock- 
man and  Farmer. 


152  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  trotter,  sold  for  $150,000,  and  Dan  Patch,  the  pacer, 
was  purchased  for  $60,000.  The  automobile  has  largely 
displaced  the  trotting  and  pacing  horse,  so  that  they  now 
have  no  great  value  outside  of  purposes  for  which  horses  of 
light  weight  can  be  used,  such  as  driving,  racing,  and  in 
certain  kinds  of  business  where  no  special  draft  power  is 
required.  Our  people  would  be  much  better  off  to-day  if  we 
raised  but  a  limited  number  of  light  harness  horses,  and  only 
the  higher  class  ones  at  that.  Unless  exhibiting  remarkable 
speed,  they  command  very  low  prices. 

The  Hackney  horse  is  a  breed  that  was  first  produced  in 
eastern  England,  especially  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  counties. 
In  these  regions  the  trotting  gait  has  long  been  popular.  The 
claim  is  made  that  this  breed  began  important  development 
about  1755,  with  a  horse  called  Shales.  He  traced  back  to 
the  Darley  Arabian,  to  which  the  Thoroughbred  is  related. 
The  Hackney  is  very  common  in  England,  but  not  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  a  breed  that  varies  considerably  in  size,  ranging 
from  a  pony  to  a  good-sized  carriage  horse.  When  of  suit- 
able size,  standing  about  16  hands  high,  it  is  what  is  known 
as  a  heavy  harness  or  carriage  horse.  A  Hackney  of  good 
type  is  very  attractive  of  head;  has  a  long,  arching  neck;  a 
fuller  chest  than  a  trotter;  is  strong  and  short  of  back;  has  a 
long,  full-rounded  hind  quarter;  a  beautiful  round,  smooth 
body;  and  stands  squarely  on  short,  clean-cut  legs,  and  good 
feet.  Chestnut  is  a  very  popular  color,  as  is  bay,  and  brown. 
This  horse  is  noted  for  the  powerful  manner  in  which  he 
moves  the  legs  in  the  trot.  He  has  a  bold  stride,  lifting  the 
knees  higher  than  any  other  breed,  and  carrying  the  hind 
legs  forward  with  distinct  power.  The  Hackney  gait  is  a 
model  in  the  opinion  of  many  lovers  of  high-class  carriage 
horses.  If  he  is  what  is  termed  a  high  actor,  that  is,  moves 
his  knees  up  high  rather  than  far  forward,  he  will  have  a 
short  stride  which  is  somewhat  slow,  and  is  termed  a  " trappy 
gait."  The  movement  is  both  ugly  and  undesirable. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


153 


The  Hackney  in  his  native  land  is  rather  noted  as  a 
horse  with  considerable  speed,  and  most  excellent  records 
have  been  made  in  driving  over  country  roads.  This  is  the 
most  popular  breed  in  the  stables  of  wealthy  men  who  keep 
fine  carriage  teams,  but  in  recent  years  the  automobile  has 
greatly  injured  the  business  of  breeding  such  horses.  No 
breed  of  coach  horse  is  popular  in  America,  and  this  is  the 
only  one  at  the  present  time  that  should  be  seriously  con- 
sidered. The  Hackney  has  been  extensively  distributed  over 
Europe,  North  and  South  America,  and  Australia. 


Figure  37. — A   Hackney  in   harness,   giving  a  striking  exhibition   of  action. 
Photograph  from  S.   L.  Howe,   British  Columbia. 

The  Percheron  horse  'is  of  French  origin.  There  is  a 
small  section  of  France  called  the  Perche,  which  is  nearly  100 
miles  southwest  of  Paris.  It  is  a  beautiful,  rolling,  or  hilly, 
country,  where  the  farmers  have  fine  water,  sweet  grass,  and 
fertile  fields.  In  this  region  the  Percheron  originated.  The 
breed  is  very  old,  and  no  doubt  it  has  passed  through  im- 
portant changes  during  the  past  century.  Fifty  years  ago 
Percherons  were  not  as  big  as  now,  and  they  could  trot  quite 
fast  along  the  highways.  The  demands  of  Americans  during 
the  past  25  years  have  caused  the  French  to  develop  a  larger 


154 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


size  in  these  horses.  It  is  now  much  the  most  popular  draft 
breed  in  America.  Mature  stallions  in  ordinary  condition 
weigh  from  1,700  to  2,000  pounds,  or  more,  and  mature 
mares  from  1,600  to  1,800  pounds.  The  height  of  stallions 
is  from  16  to  17  hands,  with  mares  slightly  less.  The  color 
is  usually  either  gray  of  some  shade  or  black,  though  bay, 


Figure  38. — Percheron  mare,  La  Belle,  a  noted  prize  winner  and  brood  mare, 
owned  by  W.  H.  Butler,  Sandusky,  Ohio.     Photograph  by  Hildebrand. 

brown,  or  chestnut  occurs  occasionally.  These  horses  are 
very  massive  appearing,  when  of  the  best  type,  having  big 
bodies,  strong  wide  backs,  powerful  hind  quarters,  muscular 
legs,  and  splendid  feet.  The  legs  are  free  from  long  hairs, 
this  being  one  of  the  smooth-legged  breeds.  The  foot  is 
shapely,  of  fine  texture  and  proper  size.  Good  specimens 
have  a  very  active  gait  and  move  off  well  with  a  load. 

No  other  draft  breed  in  America  has  so  many  representa- 
tives as  has  this  one.     These  horses  are  most  abundant  in 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  155 

Illinois,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Indiana, 
and  South  Dakota,  in  about  the  order  named.  The  two 
leading  centers  in  the  United  States  are  in  Delaware  County, 
Ohio,  and  Tazewell  County,  Illinois.  During  the  World 
War  some  of  these  horses  were  taken  from  France  to  Eng- 
land, where  they  have  grown  greatly  in  popularity.  In  spite 
of  the  depression  in  the  horse  industry,  due  to  the  automo- 
bile, good  Percheron  horses  have  been  in  demand  at  very 
satisfactory  prices.  Many  work  horses  showing  consider- 
able Percheron  character,  have  sold  at  from  $400  to  $500, 
and  in  1910,  Crouch  and  Son,  of  Indiana,  bought  a  pair  of 
Percheron  geldings  for  $2,025,  a  record  price.  The  stallion 
Carnot,  a  noted  prize  winner  and  sire  in  France  and  America, 
was  bought  by  W.  S.  Corsa,  of  Illinois,  for  $10,000. 

The  Clydesdale  horse  is  a  breed  that  was  developed  in 
southwestern  Scotland,  where  it  has  been  known  since  about 
1715.  The  Clydesdale  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the  largest 
draft  breeds.  It  has  certain  features  that  perhaps  are  no- 
table. To  begin  with  the  feet,  they  must  be  large,  round, 
and  wide  behind  at  the  heel,  with  a  good,  elastic  frog.  The 
bones  of  the  legs  should  be  hard  and  not  round  and  meaty, 
but  the  arms  and  quarters  must  be  heavily  muscled.  The 
Scotchman  thinks  his  horse  has  the  best  of  feet  and  legs, 
and,  when  either  walking  or  trotting,  that  he  has  the  best 
movement  of  any  draft  horse.  It  is  a  fact  that  many 
Clydesdale  horses  move  with  splendid  action  and  carry 
their  feet  with  snap  and  trueness.  This  is  a  hairy-legged 
breed,  with  long  hair  on  the  back  of  both  front  and  hind  legs 
from  the  knee  and  the  hock  down.  The  body  of  the  Clydes- 
dale is  often  deficient  in  massiveness,  so  that  these  horses 
appear  shallow  of  body  and  correspondingly  long  of  leg, 
the  principal  criticism  of  this  breed  to-day.  The  shoulders 
usually  slope  well  into  the  back,  which  fact  accounts  for  the 
easy  movement  of  this  horse.  The  color  is  usually  bay  or 
brown,  with  white  markings  on  the  face  and  on  the  lower 


156 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


part  of  the  legs.  There  are  also  chestnut,  black,  and  grays 
occasionally  to  be  found.  The  height  is  about  16J^  hands 
for  the  matured  males.  Typical  Clydesdale  mares  weigh 
from  1,600  to  1,700  pounds,  and  the  males  two  or  three  hun- 
dred pounds  more. 

Clydesdales  were  first  brought  to  America  in  1842,  being 
taken  to  Canada,  where  they  are  quite  common  to-day. 


Figure  39. — Clydesdale  mare,  Fairholm  Ruth,  grand  champion  at  1918  Inter- 
national Exposition.  Bred  by  R.  A.  Fairbairn  of  New  Jersey.  Photograph 
from  Mr.  Fairbairn. 

The  breed  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  United  States, 
though  it  has  not  grown  in  popularity  in  this  country,  and 
there  are  comparatively  few  horses  of  the  breed  in  any  one 
state.  Wherever  the  Scotch  farmer  has  settled,  we  are  likely 
to  find  these  horses.  The  stallion  Baron  of  Buchlyvie  in 
1911  sold  for  $47,500,  which  is  the  record  price  of  the  breed. 
The  Shire  horse  is  an  English  breed  of  much  the  same 
general  character  as  the  Clydesdale.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  157 

breeds  in  England,  and  is  as  popular  with  the  Englishman 
as  the  Clydesdale  is  with  the  Scotchman.  These  horses  dif- 
fer in  certain  important  respects,  though  they  have  the  same 
color  and  markings,  as  a  rule,  and  both  have  the  hairy  legs. 
The  Shire  is  a  somewhat  larger  and  more  massive  breed 
than  the  Clydesdale,  and  has  a  wider  back  and  deeper, 
heavier  body.  Mature  stallions  should  stand  about  17 


Figure  40. — Shire  stallion,  Rosco  V,  in  yearling  form,  owned  by  University  of 
Illinois.     Photograph  from  Prof.  J.  L.  Edmonds. 

hands  high  and  weigh  from  1,800  to  2,000  pounds  in  ordinary 
condition.  For  many  years  the  Shire  was  regarded  as  very 
slow  in  movement,  and  lacked  good  action  and  quality.  In 
recent  years,  English  breeders  have  done  much  to  improve 
it,  and  the  criticisms  of  slow  movement  and  coarseness 
are  not  as  correct  as  they  once  were.  The  criticism  due  to 


158  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANfMALS 

the  hairy  legs  is  still  made,  and  this  breed,  like  the  Clydes- 
dale, is  not  at  all  common  in  America.  These  horses  have 
been  brought  to  America  in  small  numbers  since  about 
1836,  when  one  was  brought  to  Canada.  Perhaps  more  of 
these  horses  are  in  Illinois  and  Iowa  than  in  any  of  the  other 
states.  In  1910  a  Shire  stallion  named  Dan  Patch  sold  at 
Chicago  for  $10,000.  In  England  these  horses  have  com- 
manded very  high  prices,  and  in  1913  the  stallion  Childwick 
Champion  sold  for  $20,664. 

The  Belgian  horse  comes  from  one  of  the  smallest  coun- 
tries in  Europe.  Belgium  has  done  much  to  improve  the 
draft  horse,  and  the  government  has  paid  out  large  sums  of 
money  to  develop  the  breed.  The  people  take  much  inter- 
est in  their  horses,  and  their  annual  draft-horse  shows  in 
Brussels  are  among  the  greatest  exhibitions  in  Europe. 
Draft  horses  have  been  bred  in  Belgium  for  a  very  long  time. 
Since  1850,  however,  the  most  marked  improvement  has 
taken  place.  The  Belgian  is  a  very  compact,  wide,  deep, 
short-legged  sort  of  draft  horse.  He  has  a  small  head,  per- 
haps, for  his  size;  has  a  broad  chest;  very  wide,  short  back; 
a  deep  body;  a  rump  which  may  be  quite  wide  and  muscular, 
yet  somewhat  steep;  very  heavily  muscled,  short  legs;  and 
medium-sized  feet  which  have  been  criticised  sometimes  as 
being  too  small  for  such  a  heavy  horse.  The  legs,  like  those 
of  the  Percheron,  are  free  from  hair.  The  Belgians  show 
considerable  activity  when  in  motion,  and  are  powerful  draft 
animals  for  their  weight,  which  ranges  from  1,600  to  2,000 
pounds,  usually,  according  to  sex.  They  stand  about  16 
hands  high.  In  disposition  these  horses  are  very  gentle  and 
can  be  easily  handled.  Their  color  is  usually  bay,  brown, 
chestnut,  or  roan.  These  horses  were  first  brought  to  Amer- 
ica in  1866.  In  recent  years,  a  great  many  Belgians  have 
been  imported,  and  the  breed  has  grown  much  in  favor, 
being  second  in  this  regard,  probably,  to  the  Percheron.  It 
is  getting  quite  a  foothold  in  the  middle-western  states. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


159 


During  the  World  War  the  Belgian  people  suffered  great 
losses  through  German  confiscation  of  their  horses,  as  they 
also  suffered  from  destruction  of  their  breeding  operations. 
Some  of  the  best  horses,  however,  were  taken  to  Holland, 
France  and  England  early  in  the  war,  and  these  were  care- 
fully guarded,  and  later  were  returned  to  their  own  country. 
Once  again  the  horse  industry  of  Belgium  is  coming  back  to 
normal,  and  will  soon  be  as  firmly  established  as  ever. 

The  Suffolk  horse  is  an  English  draft  breed  that  has 
been  bred  mainly  in  Suffolk  county,  on  the  east  coast  of 


Figure  41, — Belgian  stallion,  John  De  Boise,  champion  at  Ohio  State  Fair,  1920. 
Photograph  by  J.  C.  Allen. 

England,  since  about  1770.  This  is  a  very  distinct  breed. 
The  color  varies  from  light  to  dark  chestnut,  with  slight 
white  marks  more  or  less,  such  as  a  star  or  blaze  on  the  face, 
or  white  pasterns  and  ankles.  Other  characteristic  features 
are  the  tendency  to  a  Roman  nose  and  small  ear;  an 
uncommonly  wide,  deep  body,  showing  a  paunchy  tendency; 
strong  quarters  and  hocks;  freedom  from  long  leg  hairs;  and 


160 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


rather  small  feet  for  the  size  of  horse.  The  height  ranges 
from  16  to  16J^  hands,  and  the  weight  from  1,800  to  1,900 
pounds  when  in  good  condition.  But  few  Suffolk  horses 
have  been  brought  to  America,  and  the  breed  is  not  well 
known  here.  It  is  noted  in  England  for  its  steadiness  at 
draft  work,  and  horses  of  the  breed  created  much  favorable 
comment  by  their  work  in  France  in  the  territory  occupied 
by  artillery  in  the  World  War.  In  recent  years  Suffolks 
have  grown  much  in  favor  in  England  outside  of  their 
native  county,  and  bid  fair  to  receive  more  favorable  consid- 
eration by  American  horsemen. 

The  Shetland  pony  has  its  native  home  on  the  Shetland 
Islands,  about  200  miles  north  of  Scotland.     These  are  very 

rocky  islands, 
and  produce  but 
little  feed  for  live 
stock.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  cold 
and  rough,  and 
the  winters  are 
most  severe. 
There  are  about 
120  islands,  with 
a  total  area  of  ap- 
proximately 550 
square  miles,  and 
Mainland  is  the 
largest  of  these.  These  ponies  have  been  bred  here  perhaps 
for  centuries.  They  vary  quite  a  good  deal  in  type.  The  best 
sort  of  Shetland  stands  from  36  to  42  inches  high,  and  is  a 
shaggy,  drafty-looking  little  pony,  especially  in  the  winter. 
These  ponies  should  show  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
miniature  draft  horses,  with  full  chests,  wide  backs,  long 
ribs,  and  long,  wide,  level  rumps.  The  modern  type,  how- 
ever, is  less  drafty  than  formerly,  with  considerable  tend- 


Figure  42. — A  Shetland  Pony,  first  prize  at  the  Highland 
Show,  Scotland.      Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  161 

ency  to  the  carriage  type.  The  head  should  not  be  too  fine, 
and  should  have  a  broad  forehead,  and  a  nice,  open,  clear 
eye,  showing  the  pleasant  disposition  usual  with  ponies  of 
this  breed.  There  are  different  colors,  but  bay,  brown,  and 
black  are  most  frequent.  Shetland  ponies  are  common  all 
over  eastern  America,  and  are  great  favorites  with  children. 
They  are  very  patientand  are  safe  pets  for  children  of  com- 
paratively early  age.  In  England,  large  numbers  have  been 
used  in  the  coal  mines  to  haul  cars  loaded  with  coal. 

The  ass  is  commonly  referred  to  in  America  as  the 
jack,  this  being  the  male,  while  the  female  is  known  as  the 
jennet.  This  animal  is  descended  from  the  wild  ass  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  There  are  several  breeds  of  the  domestic 
ass,  most  of  which  were  introduced  to  America  from  Spain. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War,  George  Washington  was 
presented  with  a  male  and  female  ass  by  the  King  of  Spain. 
The  American  parent  stock  has  largely  come  from  Anda- 
lusia and  Catalonia,  Spain,  and  from  Poitou,  France.  The 
jack  usually  stands  about  15  hands  high,  and  the  jennets 
14^.  A  weight  of  about  1,000  pounds  is  desirable  for  the 
jack.  The  hair  is  usually  brown  or  black  and  sometimes 
gray,  with  a  creamy  shade  around  the  muzzle  or  along  the 
underside  of  the  body.  The  ass  has  long,  large  ears,  rather 
a  large  head  for  the  body,  a  short,  stubby  mane,  a  round  but 
not  very  large  body,  rather  large  legs,  and  small  feet.  The 
tail  is  fine,  with  simply  a  brush  at  the  end.  This  animal  is 
slow  of  movement,  very  patient,  and  is  a  beast  of  burden 
used  mostly  among  poor  people  of  southern  Europe  and 
parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  In  America  it  is  but  little  used 
excepting  for  breeding,  and  it  is  principally  promoted  and 
kept  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  the  southern  states. 

The  mule  is  the  offspring  of  an  ass  and  a  mare.  Mules 
differ  much  in  size  and  value,  and  have  features  of  both 
parents.  The  head,  mane,  tail,  and  feet  resemble  those  of 
the  ass.  The  mules  also  bray  like  the  ass.  Mules  show  more 


162 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


fineness  of  bone  and  more  activity  than  the  ass,  and  are 
used  mostly  for  draft  purposes.  Large,  strong,  heavy  mules 
are  worth  more  money  than  small  ones.  The  best  mules 
resemble  the  high-class  draft  horse  in  form.  In  the  mule 
markets,  these  animals  are  classed  according  to  their  size 
and  use,  as  plantation,  lumber,  railroad,  mine,  and  levee 
mules.  Plantation  mules  are  especially  suited  to  draft  and 
farm  work.  There  are  two  subclasses  of  plantation  mules, — 
Sugar  and  Cotton.  Sugar  mules  stand  from  16  to  16J/2 
hands  high,  weigh  from  1,100  to  1,400  pounds,  and  are 


Figure  43. — Donkey  and  a  load  of  peat  at  Kildare,  Ireland.     Photograph  by 
the  author. 

breecly  looking  and  show  quality  and  excellent  bone.  Cot- 
ton mules  stand  from  13J/2  to  15^  hands,  weigh  900  to 
1,100  pounds,  and  are  not  of  so  high  quality  as  Sugar  mules. 
St.  Louis  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  America.  The 
average  price  for  mules  is  higher  than  that  for  horses. 
Mules  are  invaluable  for  draft  purposes,  and  are  commonly 
used  all  over  the  southern  states.  They  are  more  easily 
kept  than  horses,  and  possess  more  endurance  and  are 
always  patient. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  163 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  earliest  form  of  the  horse,  and  where  was  it  found? 

2.  Give  some  of  the  conditions  that  influenced  the  development  of 

breeds. 

3.  Why  were  Herod,  Eclipse,  and  Matchem  famous? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  Thoroughbred  and  pure-bred. 

5.  Describe  a  Hackney  horse  and  his  gait. 

6.  Where  is  the  Perche,  and  what  is  the  nature  of  the  country? 

7.  Describe  a  modern  Percheron. 

8.  In  what   respect    does    the    Scotchman    think    the  Clydesdale  a 

superior  horse? 

9.  How  do  the  Clydesdale  and  Belgian  differ  in  color? 

10.  Tell  of  the  Shetland  Islands  and  their  ponies. 

11.  Describe  the  special  features  of  the  ass. 

12.  What  breeds  of  horses  are  found  in  your  neighborhood? 

13.  Learn,  if  possible,  of  the  most  important  draft  horse  that  has  been 

known  in  your  community.     Why  was  he  important? 

14.  Find  out  the  breeding,  if  any,  of  the  saddle  horses  in  use  in  your 

neighborhood. 

15.  Who  owns  the  largest  mule  in  your  neighborhood?   Can  you  give 

his  height  and  weight? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 

The  exterior  parts  of  the  horse  are  referred  to  by  horse- 
men in  terms  not  familiar  to  all.  In  order  to  judge  intelli- 
gently and  to  use  the  score  card,  one  should  know  the 
location  and  importance  of  these  special  parts.  The  accom- 
panying illustration  makes  the  location  of  many  of  these 
clear.  Without  going  into  too  much  detail,  the  following  is 
given  regarding  some  of  the  points  least  understood. 

The  ears  should  be  fine  and  not  large  for  the  animal,  and 
be  moderately  close  together.  They  should  be  carried  in  an 
alert,  pleasing  manner,  indicating  good  disposition. 

The  poll  is  the  top  of  the  skull  just  back  of  the  ears. 

The  forehead  is  the  space  below  the  ears  and  above  the 
eyes.  A  prominent  forehead  indicates  intelligence. 

The  cheek  is  the  large  flat  side  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  nose  is  the  more  prominent  part  between  eyes  and 
nostrils.  A  wide  nose  goes  with  full  breathing  capacity. 

The  muzzle  includes  the  nostrils  and  mouth.  Good 
feeders  and  animals  of  strong  constitution  usually  have  com- 
paratively large  muzzles. 

The  lower  jaw  should  be  wide  and  strong.  A  narrow 
jaw  bespeaks  a  weak  conformation  and  an  inferior  feeder. 

The  crest  is  the  curved  line  of  the  neck  from  the  poll 
to  the  withers.  Males  should  show  some  crest,  but  on  the 
females  this  feature  is  not  prominent.  Stallions  frequently 
have  a  thick,  muscular  neck,  with  a  strong  crest.  This  is 
a  sign  of  masculinity,  and  is  objectionable  on  mares. 

The  throat  latch  is  the  part  where  the  head  and  neck 
join  on  the  lower  side.  At  this  point  the  throat  should  be 
neat  and  clearly  defined.  A  throat  latch  that  is  thick  and 

164 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORHE 


165 


full,  is  regarded  as  ugly  and  very  undesirable,  being  usually 
associated  with  more  or  less  restricted  breathing. 

The  shoulders  extend  from  the  side  of  the  breast,  slop- 
ing nearly  to  the  top  of  the  back.  The  upper  portion  of  the 
shoulder  blade  is  wide  and  flat,  and  should  be  smoothly  laid 
into  the  body.  Muscles  are  attached  to  the  shoulder  blades 
and  play  an  important  part  in  ease  of  motion.  A  long,  sloping, 
well  laid-in  shoulder  gives  the  easiest  and  fastest  motion. 


Figure  44. — The  points  of  the  draft  horse:  1,  mouth;  2,  nostril;  3,  chin;  4,  nose; 
5,  face;  6,  forehead;  7,  eye;  8,  ear;  9,  lower  jaw;  10,  throat  latch;  11, 
windpipe;  12,  crest;  13,  withers;  14, shoulder;  15,  breast;  16,  arm;  17,  elbow; 
18,  forearm;  19,  knee;  20,  cannon;  21,  fetlock  joint;  22,  pastern;  23,  foot; 
24,  fore  flank;  25,  heart  girth;  26,  coupling;  27,  back;  28,  loin;  29,  hind- 
flank;  30,  belly;  31,  hip;  32,  croup;  33,  tail;  34,  buttocks;  35,  quarters; 
36;  thigh;  37,  stifle;  38,  gaskin;  39,  hock. 

The  withers,  the  crested,  bony  prominence  between  the 
shoulder  tops,  is  the  name  given  to  the  spine  at  this  point. 
This  part  is  important,  being  the  point  of  attachment  for 


166 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM   AN1MALM 


the  ligaments  or  muscles  which  support  and  move  the  head 
and  neck,  move  the  shoulder  blades  and  extend  the  ribs 
forward,  promoting  deep  breathing  and  providing  a  powerful 
support  to  the  entire  back  along  the  vertebrae. 

The  arm  is  the  wider,,  more  muscular  part  just  below  the 
shoulder.  The  width  and  covering  of  muscle  of  the  arm, 
rather  than  its  length,  indicate  its  strength. 

The  forearm  lies  just  below  the  arm  and  extends  to  the 
knee,  and  should  be  long  and  broadly  muscular.  A  thin, 
narrow  forearm  is  regarded  as  a  weak  conformation. 


Figure  45. — The  relationship  of  the  skeleton  of  the  horse  to  body  conformation. 
Reproduced  from  "Diseases  of  the  Horse,"   U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

The  knee  should  be  broad  in  front,  straight  in  position 
as  viewed  from  in  front,  have  a  good  depth,  and  be  strongly 
supported  below  with  a  well-placed,  superior  cannon  bone. 

The  cannon  bone  reaches  to  the  joint  above  the  foot,  and 
consists  of  a  round-fronted  bone,  with  two  small  bones  back 
of  it.  There  are  two  tendons  lying  directly  back  of  the  can- 
non bone.  The  correct  shape  for  the  cannon  bone  is  short 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  167 

and  somewhat  flat,  an  important  feature  of  a  strong  confor- 
mation. It  is  especially  desirable  that  the  bone  below  the 
knee  be  wide,  and  but  slightly  cut  under  at  the  knee. 

The  fetlock  joint  connects  with  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  bone.  This  joint  should  be  straight,  deep  through, 
and  blend  neatly  and  smoothly  with  the  pastern  below. 

The  pastern  is  in  the  main  a  combination  of  two  short 
bones,  and  should  stand  at  an  incline,  because  it  plays  an 
important  part  in  breaking  the  concussion  which  takes  place 
when  the  horse  is  in  motion.  The  shorter  and  more  upright 
the  pastern  the  more  liable  is  the  horse  to  have  bone  diseases 
and  a  hard  gait.  Carriage  horses  should  have  the  pastern 
show  a  slope  of  about  45  degrees.  Drafters  are  usually 
steeper  of  pastern  than  the  light  horse  and  consequently 
are  often  somewhat  clumsy  of  gait.  The  pastern  is  sometimes 
too  long,  and  lacks  the  strength  to  support  the  body  correctly. 

The  foot  consists  of  several  parts.  The  hoof  proper  is  a 
very  tough,  horny  bone,  and  in  form  should  be  rather 
round,  although  the  hind  foot  is  never  as  round  as  the  one  in 
front.  The  top  of  the  hoof  should  not  be  narrow  and  small, 
but  should  have  some  fullness  compared  with  the  lower  part. 
The  back  part  of  the  hoof  makes  a  sudden  turn  forward 
underneath,  forming  a  V-shaped  portion  known  as  the  frog. 
This  frog  is  somewhat  elastic,  and  acts  as  a  buffer  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  which  under  natural  conditions  it 
should  just  touch.  The  frog  should  never  be  pared  by  the 
blacksmith,  excepting  to  remove  tag  ends  or  parts  grown 
out  of  shape.  A  good  frog  saves  the  foot  hard  punishment 
on  the  road.  The  sole  of  the  foot  is  the  part  between  the 
outer  wall  of  the  hoof  and  the  frog.  This  part  is  slightly 
concave  or  arched.  The  entire  back  part  of  the  hoof  is 
called  the  heel,  and  this  should  be  neither  low  nor  high,  hav- 
ing only  enough  height  above  the  standing  surface  to  give 
the  foot  strength  and  protection.  The  heel  should  have 
about  the  same  slope  as  the  front  part  of  the  hoof,  which  is 


168 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


from  45  to  50  degrees.  The  hoof  should  be  free  of  cracks 
and  not  brittle,  defects  that  are  all  too  common.  The  pop- 
ular sentiment  is  in  favor 
of  a  dark  colored  hoof, 
most  persons  thinking  it 
tougher  than  a  white  one 
and  less  liable  to  break. 
The  heart  girth,  or 
chest,  is  contained  within 
the  circumference  of  the 
body  just  back  of  the 
shoulders.  A  deep,  full 
chest  indicates  vigor  and 
strong  constitution.  A 
marked  depression  back 
of  the  shoulders  is  asso- 
ciated with  narrow  chest 
and  cramped  space  for 
the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  back  should  be 
straight  and  short  with 
the  ribs  comparatively 
well  sprung.  A  consid- 
erable depression,  or  sag, 
of  the  back  is  a  sign  of 
weakness.  The  back 
extends  from  the  lower 
end  of  the  withers  to  a 
wide,  somewhat  level  and  muscular  part  called  the  loin. 

The  loin  is  the  broadest  and  flattest  part  of  the  back, 
and  lies  between  the  last  rib  and  the  point  of  the  hips.  The 
strength  of  back  lies  in  the  loin,  which  should  be  short,  wide, 
and  heavily  muscled.  A  long,  narrow  loin  is  a  sign  of  weak- 
ness and  inability  to  stand  up  under  severe  work. 

The  coupling  is  the  space  between  the  point  of  hip  and 


Figure  46. — The  foot  of  the  horse.  1.  (a) 
nail  properly  driven-  (b)  improperly  driven. 
2,  A  sound  foot.  3,  A  section  across  2  at  X. 
4,  A  contracted  hoof.  4a,  a  section  across 
0  at  X.  5,  A  section  across  7  at  X.  0,  A 
sound  but  flat  hoof.  7,  A  badly  contracted 
foot.  Reproduced  from  "Diseases  of  the 
Horse,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  169 

the  last  rib.  A  short  coupling  indicates  strength  and  endur- 
ance, a  condition  much  sought  for  by  horsemen. 

The  hip  is  seen  as  a  point  more  or  less  prominent  on 
each  side,  just  back  of  the  coupling.  The  hips  on  mature 
females  are  usually  more  prominent  than  on  the  males. 
Symmetry  of  form  calls  for  the  hip  to  be  nicely  laid  in,  with 
a  smooth  covering  of  flesh.  There  are  other  good  reasons 
for  not  having  a  wide  placing  of  the  points  of  the  hips,  which 
need  not  be  discussed  here. 

The  croup,  or  rump,  is  the  long,  muscular  development 
from  the  point  of  the  hips  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail. 
Great  power  and  strength  exist  here,  and  so  it  is  important 
that  this  part  be  long,  wide,  and  fairly  level.  A  steep  rump 
is  unsightly,  though  quite  common  on  some  draft  horses, 
and  a  narrow  one  has  less  muscle  than  a  wide  one  that  is 
equally  long.  Length  here  is  also  desirable  as  affecting  speed. 

The  thigh  extends  from  the  rump  down  to  the  large 
joint  below,  known  as  the  hock.  This  part  should  be  very 
muscular,  and  wide  from  the  lower  side  of  the  croup  to  a 
joint  below  called  the  stifle.  The  upper  part  of  the  thigh 
is  wide,  while  the  lower  portion,  often  termed  the  gaskin,  is 
long,  narrow,  and  very  muscular.  From  the  point  of  the 
hip  to  the  hock  one  should  look  for  considerable  length. 

The  stifle  joint  is  located  in  the  front  part  of  the  thigh 
close  to  the  body.  This  is  comparable  to  the  knee  in  the 
human  skeleton.  By  means  of  tendons  some  of  the  strong- 
est muscles  of  the  upper  thigh  are  connected  with  this  joint. 

The  flanks  refer  to  the  parts  where  the  legs  join  with 
the  body.  The  front  flank  is  just  back  of  the  arm,  while 
the  hind  flank  is  the  high  part  of  the  side  above  and  beyond 
the  stifle.  A  low,  full  flank  goes  with  large  body  capacity 
and  constitutional  vigor.  Horses  high  in  the  flanks  usually 
appear  long  of  leg  and  lacking  in  feeding  capacity. 

The  hock  is  the  large  joint  about  half  way  down  the  hind 
leg.  This  is  a  very  important  part,  and  should  be  wide  in 


170  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

front,  deep  through  from  front  to  rear,  and  should  be  lean 
rather  than  fleshy.  Large,  heavy  horses  tend  to  have  what 
are  known  as  thick,  meaty  hocks.  There  are  small  bones 
in  this  joint,  and  they  are  most  important  in  reducing  the 
concussion  which  comes  from  the  severe  use  thrown  on  the 
hind  legs  when  in  action. 

The  general  features  of  the  cannon,  fetlock  joint,  pas- 
tern, and  foot  in  the  front  legs  are  essentially  the  same  as 
those  behind,  but  the  rear  camion  bone  is  flatter  and  deeper 
from  front  to  rear,  and  usually  shows  somewhat  more 
length.  The  hind  pasterns  also  are  usually  less  sloping  and 
somewhat  shorter  than  those  in  front. 

The  position  of  the  horse  at  rest  should  show  the  feet 
squarely  placed  and  the  legs  as  perpendicular  as  possible, 
as  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  cannon  bones.  Horses' 
legs  may  take  a  variety  of  positions.  Sometimes  they  toe 
in,  or,  perhaps,  toe  out.  In  such  cases  the  legs  are  not 
straight.  If  the  hocks  nearly  touch,  then  the  hind  feet 
usually  point  out;  while,  if  there  is  considerable  width  be- 
tween the  hocks,  the  toes  point  in.  A  wide  or  bowed  hock 
shows  a  very  weak  conformation,  worse  than  one  that  is 
too  close.  Horsemen  prefer  the  hocks  to  come  close  to- 
gether rather  than  to  be  spread  wide  apart,  for  the  closer 
position  gives  the  better  hock  action  of  the  two. 

The  horse  at  the  walk  should  follow  a  straight  line 
when  led,  not  swinging  the  body  to  one  side.  The  feet 
should  be  raised  with  snap,  and  carried  forward  and  upward, 
and  the  knee  and  hock  flexed,  as  it  is  termed.  In  this  flexing 
movement,  the  foot  describes  a  half  circle  before  it  strikes 
the  ground.  Heavy  horses  tend  to  swing  the  feet  to  one 
side,  or  paddle  or  wing,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  When 
the  feet  in  motion  come  too  close  together,  the  horse  is  said 
to  "interfere,"  that  is,  the  hoof  of  one  foot  will  strike  the 
ankle  of  another,  interrupting  smooth,  uniform  locomotion, 
and  may  cause  lameness.  As  the  foot  is  raised,  a  person 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  171 

standing  behind  a  horse  in  motion  should  be  able  to  see  the 
glisten  of  the  shoe  and  note  the  carriage  of  the  foot. 

The  movement  of  the  feet  in  the  trot  is  such  that  diago- 
nally opposite  ones  are  moved  in  the  same  direction;  that 
is,  the  front  right  and  left  hind  feet  move  forward  together. 
The  trot  is  known  as  a  diagonal  gait. 

The  movement  of  the  feet  in  the  pace  shows  the  two 
legs  on  one  side  of  the  body  in  like  motion  at  the  same  time. 


Figure  47. — A  good  attitude  and  correct  position  of  legs.     Photograph  from 
The  Farmer. 

The  pace  is  a  side  gait  of  an  unattractive  character,    and 
pacing  horses  are  sometimes  called  "side-wheelers." 

The  action  of  the  horse  is  highly  valued.  A  heavy  draft 
horse  that  has  a  rapid  and  true  walk  will  accomplish  much 
more  work  than  will  the  horse  of  slow  movement.  A  fast 
trot  is  not  necessaiy  with  the  heavy  horse;  but,  when  mov- 
ing faster  than  a  walk,  a  horse  should  carry  his  legs  with 
spirit  and  ease.  A  premium  is  always  placed  on  the  action 


172  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  carriage  horse  for  the  city  coach  trade,  high  knee  and 
hock  action  being  especially  valued.  The  roadster  or  trotter 
of  first  class  must  have  a  long,  active,  true  stride,  such  as 
always  goes  with  superior  speed. 

Quality  in  the  horse  is  shown  in  the  hair,  the  skin  and 
bone,  and  in  the  general  appearance.  A  fine,  silky  coat  of 
hair;  a  thin,  mellow  skin;  and  fineness  of  bone,  are  features 
that  show  refinement,  or  quality.  A  big,  rough  head;  large 
ears  for  the  size  of  the  body;  wiry,  heavy  hair;  too  large 
joints  and  coarseness  of  bone,  indicate  lack  of  endurance 
and  weakness  of  constitution.  A  large,  coarse  bone  is  more 
porous  and  less  strong  in  proportion  than  one  that  is  finer 
and  smaller.  Fineness  and  softness  of  skin  is  an  indication 
of  good  secretions  and  healthy  internal  organs.  In  an  ani- 
mal of  quality  we  find  the  most  durability  and  stamina,  or 
power  of  endurance. 

The  disposition  of  the  horse  is  usually  seen  in  the  promi- 
nence and  character  of  the  eye  and  the  carriage  of  the  ears. 
If  the  eye  is  prominent,  the  whites  clear,  and  the  expression 
pleasant,  the  disposition  will  probably  be  good.  A  small, 
sunken  eye  indicates  a  bad  temper.  Too  much  emphasis 
can  not  be  placed  on  the  relationship  of  the  eyes  to  the  dis- 
position, for  in  general  here  is  an  excellent  indicator  of  the 
mental  attitude  of  the  horse.  Ears  that  are  usually  carried 
erect  or  that  point  forward  show  a  good  temper,  but,  if 
the  horse  has  a  tendency  to  throw  the  ears  back  suddenly,  a 
mean  spirit  is  evident.  A  lopping  about  of  the  ears  is  evi- 
dence of  laziness. 

The  height  of  the  horse  is  usually  expressed  in  "hands," 
a  hand  being  equal  to  4  inches.  The  height  is  measured  in 
a  vertical  line  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  withers.  A 
horse  16  hands  high  would  stand  64  inches  from  the  ground. 

The  weight  of  the  horse,  in  a  degree,  indicates  to  what 
class  he  belongs.  A  mature  horse  weighing  2,000  pounds 
would  naturally  be  a  heavy  draft  animal.  If  weighing  1,000 


THE  POINT8  OF  THE  HORSE 


173 


Figure  48. — The  age  of  the  horse 
as  shown  by  the  teeth.  18 
months  old. 


pounds,  it  might  be  one  of  several  types.  In  Europe,  the 
height  of  the  horse  rather  than  his  weight  is  looked  upon  as 
of  the  most  importance. 

The  age  of  the  horse  is  estimated  by  an  examination  of 
the  teeth.  It  requires  some  experience  to  be  quick  in  rec- 
ognizing the  age,  which  may  be  t 

determined  with  fair  accuracy 
up  to  eight  years,  after  which  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  guess  work. 
The  following  items  are  the  im- 
portant guides  to  age. 

The  colt's  teeth.  Seven  or 
eight  days  after  birth,  two  incisor 
teeth  appear  at  the  front  and 
middle  of  both  upper  and  lower  jaws.  In  the  course  of 
five  or  six  weeks,  two  more  teeth  appear  in  each  jaw,  one 
tooth  coming  in  on  each  side  of  the  two  already  present. 
Some  time  between  the  sixth  and  ninth  month,  two  more 
appear,  one  by  the  side  of  each  outer  tooth.  These  sixspairs 
are  known  as  "nippers."  They  are  the  milk  teeth,  and  are 
but  temporary.  They  are  not  all  equally  level  with  one 

another  at  first,  but  in  the  course 
of  twelve  months  or  so  they  be- 
come uniform  on  the  surface. 
The  outside  of  the  tooth  is  a 
very  hard,  white  enamel.  This 
covers  a  hard,  ivory-like  bone, 
while  at  the  center  is  a  soft,  bony 
substance  which  more  easily 
wears  away,  but  is  constantly  renewed.  The  ends  of  the  teeth 
have  a  ridged  cutting  surface,  forming  at  the  centers  small 
depressions,  or  "cups,"  marks  by  which  the  age  is  deter- 
mined. The  cups  in  the  central  pair  of  nippers  at  first  are 
dark  of  center;  in  the  second  year  they  begin  to  wear  light 
in  color,  and  these  cups  become  smaller  than  those  of  the 


Figure  49. — Teeth  showing 
years  of  age. 


174 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  50. — The  teeth  showing 
3i^  years  of  age. 


other  four.  Similar  changes  fol- 
low in  order  in  the  other  pairs. 
The  teeth  of  the  horse  at 
three  years  show  in  the  front  of 
each  jaw  a  pair  of  permanent 
incisors,  larger  than  the  nippers, 
occupying  the  place  of  the  central 
pair,  which  they  have  pushed  out. 

The  teeth  of  the  horse  at  four  years  show  the  addition 
of  two  more  permanent  large  incisors,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  central  pair  in  each  jaw,  in  place  of  the  colt  teeth. 

The  teeth  of  the  horse  at  five 
years  show  the  last  pair  of  nippers 
in  each  jaw  replaced  by  perma- 
nent incisors.  At  this  age  there 
appears  in  the  mouth  of  the  male 
four  canine  teeth,  commonly 
known  as  "tushes."  These  teeth 
have  roundish  points,  and  there 
are  two  in  each  jaw,  one  being  on 
each  side  of  the  permanent  in- 
cisors, and  a  short  distance  back 
of  them.  After  the  fifth  year  the 
age  of  the  horse  is  determined  by  the  extent  to  which  the 
ends  of  the  teeth  and  the  cups  previously  referred  to  are 
worn  down,  the  older  teeth  naturally  showing  the  most  wear. 

The  teeth  of  the  horse  at  six 
years  show  the  cups  of  the  central 
permanent  incisors  in  the  lower 
jaw  somewhat  worn. 

The  teeth  of   the   horse   at 
seven  years  show  that  the  cups 
of  the  second  pair  of  permanent 
incisors    in    the    lower   jaw   are 
Figure  52.— The  jeeth  showing      wom  away  to  a  noticeable  degree. 


Figure  51. — The  teeth  showing 
4  years  of  age. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


175 


Figure  53. — The  teeth  showing 
6  years  of  age. 


The  teeth  of  the  horse  at 
eight  years  show  the  cups  of  the 
third  and  last  pair  of  incisors  in 
each  jaw  worn  off.  By  this  time 
all  the  teeth  have  been  worn 
about  level,  so  that  the  mouth 
mark  largely  loses  its  value.  The 
cups  in  the  incisor  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaw  wear  off  more  slowly, 
however,  those  in  the  central 

pair  disappearing  at  about  nine  years.  This  result  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  cup  in  the  upper  incisors  is  deeper  than 
in  the  lower  ones,  and  so  remains  a  longer  time. 

The  six  permanent  teeth  in 

^tftfSBfe^t  each  jaw  at  first  meet  each  other 

jjijJF  ^liH^         m  mucn  the  same  position,  their 

mf  ^|        ends  butting   directly   together. 

As  age  increases,  the  teeth  gradu- 
ally take  a  more  inclined  or  slant- 
ing position  in  each  jaw,  so  that 
they  come  together  at  a  sharper 


Figure  54. — The  teeth  showing 
7  years  of  age. 


angle.  The  older  teeth  are  also 
more  worn  off  at  the  surface,  but 
have  grown  out  longer.  In  horses  from  12  to  16  years  of 
age,  the  ends  of  the  teeth  become  somewhat  three-sided. 

The  soundness  of  the  horse  is  regarded  as  very  impor- 
tant.    Many  unsound  horses  are      , 

sold  to  men  who  think  they  are 
buying  sound  ones.  Then,  when 
the  buyers  attempt  to  sell,  their 
horses  often  show  a  great  loss  on 
the  purchase  price.  If,  therefore, 
one  is  to  be  a  capable  judge,  one 
must  be  able  to  distinguish  cases 
of  unsoundness.  It  is  not  always 


Figure  55. — The  teeth  showing 
8  years  of  age. 


176  A   STUDY  OF  FARM.  ANIMALS 

easy  to  do  so.  Some  forms  are  not  clearly  apparent  until 
well  established.  If  the  respiration  is  not  good,  this  fault 
is  brought  out  in  some  form  of  work,  such  as  trotting, 
hauling  a  load,  etc.  In  the  sale  markets,  horses  are  hitched 
to  wagons  with  brakes,  so  that  they  may  be  required  to 
make  quite  an  exertion  in  moving  along.  If  a  horse  is  lame, 
or  has  bad  wind,  these  defects  may  be  seen  when  he  is  in 
action. 

Heaves  is  an  unsoundness  or  trouble  of  the  lungs  which 
is  brought  on  through  dusty  feed,  bad  ventilation,  or  indi- 
gestion. Broken  wind  or  asthma  is  apparently  much  the 
same  thing.  When  the  horse  expels  wind  from  the  chest, 
he  lacks  the  muscular  contraction  of  the  lungs  that  char- 
acterizes the  sound  animal,  and  makes  a  wheezing  noise, 
which  is  sometimes  very  loud. 

Roaring  is  another  disease  in  which  the  horse  makes  a 
loud  noise  during  breathing.  The  larynx  is  affected,  but  not 
the  lungs.  This  is  caused  by  a  paralysis  of  the  nerves  and 
muscles  of  the  parts,  which  results  in  the  noise  in  breathing. 
Roaring  is  manifested  during  exertion,  yet  a  horse  may  be 
a  roarer  and  be  driven  some  distance  without  making  much 
if  any  noise.  The  disease  is  one  of  progression,  and  grad- 
ually becomes  worse.  Roaring  had  always  been  regarded 
incurable  until  some  years  ago  when  Dr.  Williams,  of  Cornell 
University,  discovered  a  method  of  operating  by  which  it 
might  be  cured.  This  is  known  as  the  Williams  operation, 
and  it  is  now  performed  with  success  in  America  and 
abroad. 

Spavin,  commonly  referred  to  as  bone  spavin,  is  usually 
found  on  the  inner  side  and  in  front  of  the  hock  joint.  There 
are  three  forms  of  spavins. 

(a)  The  high,  or  true,  spavin,  the  more  serious  one. 

(b)  The  low,  or  jack,  spavin,  and 

(c)  The  blind  spavin,  which  affects  the  joint  surface,  but 
causes  no  enlargement. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


111 


The  spavin  is  caused  by  a  strain 
or  injury,  or  may  be  due  to  heredity 
influences  or  faulty  conformation.  The 
high  or  low  spavin  is  shown  in  a  more 
or  less  thickening  of  the  part,  as  com- 
pared with  a  sound  hock.  The  occur- 
rence of  spavin  is  most  easily  seen  by- 
standing  directly  back  of  the  horse 
and  viewing  the  parts  from  the  rear. 
Spavins  cause  lameness  and  a  stiff  gait, 
and  are  regarded  as  a  serious  unsound  - 
ness,  greatly  affecting  sale  values. 
They  are  more  common  on  light  than 
on  heavy  horses.  The  horse  that  has 
"a  spavined  gait,"  shows  a  slight  hitch 
in  the  hip  on  the  side  affected,  with  a 
letting  down  of  the  opposite  hip  when 
in  action.  When  the  horse  first  starts 
this  defect  is  most  noticeable,  for  he 
naturally  throws  his  weight  on  his 
sound  leg.  With  exercise  his  gait 
becomes  more  natural;  but,  after  rest- 
ing and  cooling,  lameness  again  appears 
when  he  is  required  to  move. 

Curb  is  another  unsoundness  of  the 
hock.  When  in  perfect  condition,  the 
back  of  the  hock,  slightly  below  the 
point,  has  rather  a  vertical  straight 
edge.  If  a  curb  exists,  there  is  a 
bulging  or  outward  curve  a  short 
distance  below  the  point,  that  may  be 
seen  by  viewing  the  hock  from  one 
side.  Hocks  that  do  not  have  curbs, 
yet  tend  to  round  out  at  this  part  of 
the  leg,  are  said  to  have  a  curby  confor- 


Figure  56.-^-The  upper  pic- 
ture shows  a  sound  hock 
joint;  the  lower,  one  with 
a  spavin.  Reproduced 
from  "Diseases  of  the 
Horse,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


J7S 


A    KTUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 


mation.     Curbs  are  due  to  strains,  and,  while  an  unsound- 
ness,  as  commonly  seen,  are  not  of  a  serious  nature. 

Bog  spavin  is  an  inflammation  of  the  synovial  sac,  located 
in  the  front  and  inner  side  of  the  hock.  If  pressed,  it  may 
appear  on  the  outside  and  rear  part  of  the  hock.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  F.  B.  Hadley,*  while  occurring  in  horses  of  all 
ages,  it  is  most  common  in  ' 'loose-join ted"  draft  colts,  and 
rarely  results  in  lameness.  Sometimes  these  swellings  dis- 
appear without  treatment, 
although  this  is  rarely  the 
case  with  old  horses. 

Thoroughpin  is  a  swelling 
in  the  rear  part  of  the  hock 
at  its  thinnest  point.  Here, 
under  ordinary  conditions, 
the  hock  is  curved  to  form 
graceful  outlines  with  a  pro- 
nounced depression.  If 
thoroughpin  occurs,  a  swell- 
ing will  be  noticeable  on  each 
side  of  the  hock  at  this  point. 
Bog  spavins,  thoroughpins, 
or  a  puffed  condition  about 
the  hocks,  are  seen  most  fre- 
quently on  large,  heavy 
horses  that  have  what  are 
called  thick,  meaty  hocks. 
Horse  dealers  are  inclined 
to  refer  to  these  as  little  puffs  that  will  disappear  with  work, 
and  so  minimize  their  importance.  It  is  true  that  heavy 
horses  that  stand  in  the  stable,  frequently  swell  in  the  lower 
half  of  the  legs,  a  condition  that  exercise  removes,  but  bogs 
and  thoroughpins  are  distinct  unsoundnesses  that  exercise 
will  not  drive  away,  and  that  injure  the  sale  value  of  the 
horse,  especially  if  the  buyer  is  a  dealer. 

*The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease.  1915,  p.  213 


Figure  57. — The  hock  from  one  side, 
showing  a  bog  spavin  in  front  and 
a  curb  behind.  Reproduced  from 
"The  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 


179 


J-S, 


Sidebone  is  found  in  the  rear  part  of  the  front  foot  on 
the  coffin  bone  at  the  crown  or  top  of  the  hoof.  It  is  due 
to  the  hardening  of  cartilages,  whereby  they  take  on  a  bony 
character,  which  causes  lameness.  In  well-defined  cases, 
the  sidebones  appear  as  hard  projections  just  beneath  the 
skin,  and  can  be  plainly  seen  or  felt.  In  their  early  stages, 
sidebones  are  not  so  easily 
discovered,  and  one  may  buy 
a  horse  that  appears  sound, 
yet  in  a  short  time  the  trouble 
will  become  noticeable.  Side- 
bones  are  most  common  on 
draft  horses,  and  on  those 
used  on  hard  roads  or  pave- 
ments. This  unsoundness  is 
severely  discriminated  against 
and  shrewd  men  will  not  buy  horses  that  have  sidebones. 

Ringbone  is  a  bony  deposit  which  in  the  form  of  a  ring 
encircles  the  upper  part  of  the  foot  or  the  pastern.  On  old 
horses  this  bony  enlargement  sometimes  becomes  very  con- 
spicuous. It  may  be  due  to  hard  labor,  strains,  bruises,  etc., 


Figure  58. — Sidebone  shown  at  A  on 
bone  in  foot  of  horse.  Reproduced 
from"  Diseases  of  the  Horse,"  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Figure  59. — Ring  bone  above  the  foot,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow,  and  spavin 
at  lower  part  of  hook  near  point  of  arrow.  Reproduced  from  Circular  29, 
Purdue  University  Experiment  Station. 


180  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and,  if  well  developed,  causes  serious  lameness.  Ring  bones 
are  fairly  common,  but  when  well  developed  are  easily  detected. 
Splint  is  a  bony  projection  or  roughness  usually  found 
on  the  inside  of  the  splint  bone,  which  lies  close  in  with  the 
cannon  bone  of  the  front  leg,  and  is  commonly  regarded  as 
the  cannon.  This  is  not  regarded  as  a  distinct  unsoundness, 
although  very  common  and  referred  to  quite  frequently. 
Splints  sometimes  appear  on  young  horses  and  then  disap- 
pear with  the  mature  development  of  the  animals.  Splints 
may  often  be  easily  seen  while  standing  in  front  of  the 
horse  and  looking  at  the  inside  of  the  legs  at  the  cannons. 

Quarter-crack  is  a  splitting  or  cracking  of  the  bony  part 
of  the  hoof,  usually  of  the  front  foot.  This  crack  may  ex- 
tend the  entire  length  of  the 
hoof,  and  be  so  bad  as  to  re- 
quire fastening  the  parts  with 
metal  clamps  or  nails  to  keep 
the  cracks  from  extending  or 
widening.  Horses  with  brittle 
or  soft  hoofs  are  most  affected 
with  this  trouble.  Quarter- 
crack  may  develop  so  far  as  to 

Figure    60. — Quarter    crack.     Repro-       -i          i     ji  i     j_i_       i 

duced  from  ''Diseases  of  the  Horse,"     break  through  the  lower  part 

Q.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Qf  ^  ^    ^    ^^     ^.^ 

and  lameness,  although  this  trouble  is  not  usually  serious. 

Toe-crack  is  similar  to  quarter-crack,  but  is  usually  on 
the  hind  foot,  in  the  front  part,  and  often  extends  the  length 
of  the  hoof. 

Founder,  or  laminitis,  as  the  veterinarian  calls  it,  is  an 
unsoundness  of  the  feet.  It  is  due  to  an  inflammation  of  the 
delicate  tissues  within  the  hoof,  and  is  usually  found  in  the 
front  feet.  It  is  caused  by  a  variety  of  conditions,  such  as 
overwork,  overfeeding,  exposure,  etc.  If  well  established,  it 
is  incurable  and  causes  the  horse  much  suffering.  The  com- 
mon symptom  of  this  trouble  is  lameness,  which  is  often 


THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE  181 

very  severe.  When  standing,  the  horse,  as  a  rule,  reaches 
the  feet  somewhat  forward,  resting  the  weight  upon  the 
heel.  The  hind  feet,  which  carry  most  of  the  weight,  are 
placed  well  under  the  body.  The  more  perfect  the  foot,  the 
less  liable  the  horse  is  to  suffer  from  founder.  A  very  flat 
foot,  or  one  with  very  high  hoof  walls,  or  a  foot  that  is  quite 
contracted,  is  liable  to  be  affected  with  this  trouble. 

Navicular  disease  is  an  inflammation  that  occurs  in  the 
foot  also,  affecting  the  sesamoid  sheath  and  the  navicular 
bone.  This  occurs  most  commonly  with  race  horses  and 
those  having  great  knee  action.  Usually  but  one  forefoot 
suffers  from  the  disease,  which  is  caused  by  concussion  and 
shock  to  the  affected  parts.  The  early  stages  of  the  disease 
are  not  commonly  noticed.  Attention  is  first  directed  to 
the  "pointing"  of  the  foot,  which  is  extended  forward,  the 
weight  resting  on  the  toe,  and,  as  the  trouble  develops,  lame- 
ness is  noticed,  which  increases  with  use  of  the  horse.  But 
few  cases  of  navicular  disease  recover. 

Cocked  ankle,  or  knuckling,  is  a  partial  dislocation  of 
the  pastern  or  fetlock  joint,  in  which  case  the  pastern  be- 
comes more  perpendicular  than  usual,  throwing  the  joint  for- 
ward out  of  natural  position.  This  is  not  always  an 
unsoundness,  but  is  a  defect,  in  that  it  causes  stumbling 
and  clumsy  action. 

There  are  some  other  forms  of  unsoundness  that  are 
not  especially  common.  There  are  also  some  diseases  that 
become  chronic  as  external  features,  such  as  fistula  and  poll 
evil.  These  two  are  manifested  by  swelling  and  finally 
running  sores  at  the  withers  or  poll,  as  the  case  may  be. 
When  these  two  diseases  are  well  established  as  running 
sores,  they  are  difficult  to  cure,  and  frequently,  in  spite  of 
medical  treatment,  extend  over  a  long  period  of  time. 
The  various  forms  of  unsoundness  described,  however,  are 
those  of  common  occurrence,  and  are  most  likely  to  attract 
attention. 


182  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

IN  DISCUSSING  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HORSE 

1.  Where  is  the  muzzle,  and  why  should  it  be  of  good  size? 

2.  What  kind  of  shoulder  is  most  desirable? 

3.  Locate  and  describe  the  cannon  bone. 

4.  Explain  why  the  pastern  should  be  sloping. 

5.  Describe  the  frog  and  its  use. 

6.  Discuss  good  and  bad  croup  conformation 

7.  Locate  the  hock,  and  discuss  its  form. 

8.  Explain  the  movement  of  the  feet  in  trot  and  pace. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  "hand?" 

10.  Explain  the  meaning  of  milk  teeth,  and  their  occurrence. 

11.  What  are  the  cups? 

A  FEW  OBSERVATIONS  WORTH  MAKING 

12.  Compare  "points"  on  the  home  farm  horses. 

13.  Compare  horses  on  the  town  streets. 

14.  Examine  feet  when  at  rest. 

15.  Observe  movements  of  the  feet  of  horses  driven  on  the  road. 

16.  Inquire  of  blacksmiths  if  they  shoe  to  affect  the  action. 

17.  Examine  the  teeth  of  colts  and  older  horses,  and  obtain  practice  in 

judging  age. 

18.  Report  on  any  cases  of  chronic  disease  observed  in  neighborhood 

horses. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
JUDGING  THE  HORSE 

In  the  preceding  chapter  on  "the  points  of  the  horse," 
the  conformation  of  the  horse  has  been  discussed  in  some 
detail,  and  the  relationship  of  form  to  function  shown.  In 
this  chapter,  the  important  purpose  is  to  set  forth  the  more 
distinct  features  the  judge  should  emphasize  in  judging 
either  the  carriage  or  the  draft  horse. 


Figure  61. — A  fine  example  of  high  knee  action.     The  mare  Queen  Pandora, 
owned  by  Mrs.  C.  C.  Fillers.     Photograph  from  Bit  and  Spur. 

POINTS  IN  JUDGING  CARRIAGE  HORSES 
The  judging  of  carriage,  or  light  harness,  horses  is  done 
on  the  basis  of  their  value  for  speed  and  the  drawing 
of  carriages  and  lighter  vehicles.  This  type  of  horse  is 
comparatively  light  of  weight,  is  long  and  narrow  rather 
than  short  and  thick,  yet  has  a  muscular  appearance.  In 
this  class  we  find  somewhat  striking  differences  in  type,  as 
is  seen  by  comparing  a  high-class  Hackney  with  a  light  type 
of  trotter.  The  American  saddle  horse  is  also  in  this  class, 
for  he  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  form  of  the  carriage 

183 


184  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

horse.  In  order  to  cause  no  confusion,  a  score  card  for  car- 
riage horses  is  given  on  page  185.  There  will  be  no  difficulty 
in  most  communities  in  rinding  horses  of  this  type  which 
may  be  used  for  score-card  practice.  This  score  card  is  the 
style  commonly  in  use,  containing  a  blank  column  in  which 
the  student  as  judge  may  write  his  own  score,  with  another 
column  in  which  the  score  of  the  instructor  may  be  written 
for  comparison. 

The  height  of  the  carriage  horse  may  vary,  but  16  hands 
is  a  good  standard,  with  1,100  to  1,200  pounds  for  weight. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  carriage  horse  can  best 
be  studied  by  standing  at  some  distance,  such  as  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  away,  and  making  an  inspection  which  will  take 
in  the  entire  form,  the  quality,  and  disposition.  One  should 
not  be  too  close  to  the  animal  for  this  first  examination. 
At  a  distance  one  also  gets  an  impression  of  character,  as 
shown  by  the  head  and  neck,  that  can  not  be  so  easily 
noticed  otherwise. 

The  head  of  the  carriage  horse  is  an  important  indica- 
tor of  intelligence,  disposition,  and  quality.  The  head, 
therefore,  should  be  trim  and  neat,  with  refined,  well-set 
ears,  and  carried  in  a  proud,  animated  manner.  Coarseness 
of  head  is  very  objectionable  in  this  type  of  horse. 

The  neck  of  the  carriage  horse  should  tend  to  be  fairly 
long  and  muscular,  carried  high  and  free,  with  much  ease  of 
movement.  A  thin,  ewe  neck, — one  that  is  depressed  on 
top— is  not  uncommon  with  the  lighter  type  of  carriage 
horse,  and  is  regarded  as  a  weakness. 

The  fore  quarters  of  the  carriage  horse  should  show  a 
smooth,  well  laid-in,  yet  muscular  shoulder.  While  great 
strength  is  not  essential,  a  wide,  strong,  muscular  arm,  and 
long,  wide-topped  forearm  are  favored.  What  is  called  a  clean, 
smooth  cannon  bone  is  a  very  important  feature.  Cleanness 
and  lightness  of  limb  are  much  valued  by  buyers  of  this  class 
of  horses.  Strength  and  quality  go  with  legs  of  this  kind. 


JUDGING   THE  HORSE 


185 


CARRIAGE  HORSE  SCORE  CARD 


Scale  of  Points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 
score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  Total  points,  9. 

NOTE   HEIGHT  AND   WEIGHT 

FORM,  long,  deep  chested,  muscular 4 

QUALITY,  neat  lean  head;  fine  hair;  mellow  skin;  clean 

bone  and  joints;  disposition  active  and  pleasant. 
HEAD  AND  NECK:  Total  points,  7. 

HEAD,  well  defined;  forehead  broad;  eyes  bright  and 

prominent;   muzzle   fine,   with  large  nostrils  and 

thin  lips;  ears  of  medium  size,  and  alert 

NECK,  somewhat  long  and  refined 

FORE  QUARTERS:  Total  points,  23. 

SHOULDERS,  long  smooth  and  oblique 2 

ARMS,  short  and  muscular;  forearm  long 

KNEES,  wide  in  front,  straight,  and  deep  through. ...  2 

CANNONS,  short,  flat,  strong 

FETLOCKS,    wide,    and    pasterns    strong,    oblique    45 

degrees 4 

FEET,  medium  size,   slope  like  pastern;  horn  dense; 

frog  large;  heel  wide 7 

LEGS,  properly  placed,  and  not  too  close  together 4 

BODY:  Total  points,  12. 

WITHERS,  muscular  and  well  set  back 1 

CHEST,  deep,  girth  large 4 

BACK,  strong,  short,  muscular,  well  carried;  ribs  long 

and  arched;  loin  short  and  broad G 

UNDERLINE,  long,  well  down  in  the  flank 1 

HIND  QUARTERS:    Total  points,  29. 

HIPS,  smooth,  fairly  wide  apart 

CROUP,  long,  level  and  muscular;  broad;  tail  attached 

high 3 

THIGHS,   long,    muscular;  quarters  strongly  muscled, 

and  lower  thighs  long  and  strong G 

HOCKS,  wide,  deep,  straight,  clean  cut 5 

CANNONS,  short,  wide,  strong,  clean 

FETLOCKS,     straight     and     wide;     pasterns    oblique, 

strong 

FEET,  medium  size,  slope  like  pasterns;  horn  dense; 

frog  large ;  heel  wide 4 

LEGS,  properly  placed  for  rapid  speed,  not  too  close 

together 4 

ACTION:  Total  points,  20. 

WALK,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

TROT,  rapid,  straight,  with  long  stride 


Total  score  . 


100 


NAME  OF  ANIMAL BREED  .  .  . 

OWNER 

SCORED  BY.  .  ,  .  .DATE. 


.AGE. . . 


The  body  of  the  carriage  horse  will  appear  deep  but  not 
thick,  and  will  at  its  best  have  a  sleek,  well-rounded  appear- 
ance. By  standing  off  at  one  side,  the  judge  will  get  a  bet- 
ter view  of  proportions,  and  the  fullness  of  chest,  and  depth 
of  both  front  and  hind  flanks  will  be  easily  seen.  A  view 
from  squarely  in  front  will  show  the  prominence  of  breast, 


186  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  the  thickness  and  depth  of  body  below  the  placing  of 
neck,  which  should  be  smoothly  blended  into  the  body. 
There  is  quite  a  good  deal  of  variation  in  the  withers  of  driv- 
ing horses.  They  should  not  be  very  sharp,  but  fairly  well 
muscled  and  not  appear  too  prominent.  Notice  whether 
the  back  is  strong  and  well  carried,  with  the  loins  broad  and 
not  much  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  croup.  The  well- 
turned  carriage  horse  will  show  a  fullness  of  body  from 
various  points  of  view.  The  greater  speed  he  is  capable  of 
making,  the  more  muscular  and  angular  he  will  appear. 
This  point  is  illustrated  by  comparing  a  carriage  horse  and  a 
working  trotter,  each  being  about  the  same  size,  but  used 
for  a  different  purpose. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  carriage  horse  show  power.  As 
one  stands  at  one  side,  the  length  of  croup  and  its  posi- 
tion are  easily  seen.  A  long,  strong,  high  rather  than  low 
croup  is  desired,  with  the  tail  having  a  free,  easy,  and  some- 
what high  carriage.  The  length  from  the  hips  to  the  point 
of  the  hocks  should  be  considerable. 

The  distance  from  the  hind  flank  diagonally  across  to  the 
setting  on  of  the  tail  also  should  be  comparatively  long.  As 
one  stands  behind,  one  should  be  able  to  observe  some 
thickness  below  the  tail,  where  the  hind  legs  merge  together 
into  the  thick,  muscular  quarters.  A  driving  horse  is  not 
likely  to  be  too  thick  in  the  quarters.  As  one  views  the 
horse  from  behind,  the  legs  should  reach  back,  with  the 
hocks  separated  about  four  inches,  and  the  lower  thighs 
showing  a  strong  muscular  development  from  both  rear  and 
side  views.  At  the  stifle  joint,  where  the  upper  and  lower 
thigh  connect,  fullness  rather  than  depression  should  occur. 
The  hocks  should  be  inspected  from  the  front,  at  one  side, 
and  from  behind.  It  is  important  that  they  be  clean,  well- 
turned,  and  straight.  Careful  examination  should  be  made 
of  this  part,  for  the  hocks  require  much  study.  The  occur- 
rence of  bone  and  bog  spavins  here,  and  often  a  puffy  condi- 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE  187 

tion  that  is  objectionable,  may  escape  notice.  A  horse  with 
weak  or  diseased  hocks  is  a  very  undesirable  animal  to  own. 

The  legs  of  the  horse  must  be  inspected  from  in  front 
and  from  one  side.  A  true  carriage,  in  any  event,  is  impor- 
tant. Standing  in  front  enables  one  to  see  the  straightness 
of  limb,  and  in  a  way  that  shows  the  relation  of  each  leg  to 
its  mate.  From  this  view  we  judge  whether  the  ankles  will 
interfere  when  the  horse  is  in  motion.  Thus  we  see  if  a 
true  gait  is  possible.  From  one  side  we  note  the  position  of 
the  legs,  to  determine  balance  of  action.  If  front  and  hind 
legs  are  tucked  too  much  beneath  the  body,  they  are  liable 
to  come  in  contact  with  each  other  when  in  rapid  action. 
If  there  is  too  much  stretch  and  separation  between  the 
limbs  in  front  and  behind,  then  the  action  will  lack  power. 
In  a  natural  pose  at  rest,  the  front  legs  will  incline  very 
slightly  under  the  body,  with  the  hind  legs  correspondingly 
extended  behind.  The  picture  on  page  171,  illustrates  the 
correct  position. 

A  foot  inspection  of  the  horse  begins  with  the  foot  at 
rest  and  in  a  natural  position.  Thus  one  is  able  to  note  the 
form,  the  placing  on  the  ground,  shape  of  heel,  and  the  upper 
condition  of  foot,  with  its  relation  to  the  pastern  and  to  the 
fetlock  joint.  The  foot,  however,  should  be  examined  on 
its  under  side,  and  so  must  be  raised  for  inspection.  The 
fore  foot  is  usually  started  easily  by  running  the  hand  near- 
est the  horse  down  the  shoulder  and  arm  to  the  back  of  the 
cannon,  and  pressing  on  the  tendons  with  the  ends  of  the 
fingers,  raising  the  leg  at  the  same  time,  using  the  other 
hand  to  catch  hold  of  the  hoof  as  it  is  raised  by  the  horse. 
With  one  hand  the  hoof  may  be  easily  held,  while  with  the 
other  any  accumulated  material  under  the  foot  may  be  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  a  small  pick  of  some  sort.  One  may 
then  easily  examine  the  lower  part  of  the  foot.  The  hind 
foot  is  examined  somewhat  differently.  If  wishing  to  inspect 
the  left  hind  foot,  the  left  hand  is  placed  on  the  croup  and 


188 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


quietly  slipped  down  over  the  thigh  to  the  muscle  just  above 
the  hock,  where  a  firm  pressure  with  the  fingers  is  given. 
At  the  same  time  the  right  hand  is  placed  upon  the  pastern, 
and  the  foot  and  leg  firmly  but  quietly  raised  upward  and 
backward,  reaching  away  from  the  body.  The  hoof  is  thus 
brought  in  front  of  the  examiner,  with  its  lower  surface  facing 
to  the  rear,  and  at  about  knee  height.  No  great  effort 
should  be  made  in  raising  the  feet,  for  the  horse  will  easily 
support  himself  on  his  three  other  limbs.  Young  horses  re- 


Figure  62. — Showing  correct  method  of  holding  front  foot  for  examination. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

quire  more  patience  than  old  ones  in  foot  examination ;  but, 
after  being  shod  a  few  times,  a  horse  of  good  disposition 
may  not  be  expected  to  give  trouble.  It  is  wise  to  move 
with  care  about  the  hind  legs,  especially  directly  behind,  to 
avoid  the  chance  of  a  kick. 

The  study  of  action  in  the  carriage  horse  is  most  im- 
portant. His  market  value  largely  depends  upon  his  per- 
fection of  movement.  All  carriage  horses,  and  race  horses 


JUDGING-   THE  HORSE 


189 


in  particular,  are  so  shod  as  to  regulate  their  action,  if  used 
by  men  who  know  the  relation  of  form  and  weight  of  shoe 
to  foot  and  leg  movement.  A  fancy  driver  for  a  heavy 
carriage  should  show  a  snappy,  stylish  action,  with  the  knees 
and  hocks  carried  rather  high  and  strong.  A  roadster  or  light 
race  horse  will  show  a  longer,  more  powerful  yet  plainer  gait, 
with  not  so  high  or  short  movement.  When  action  is  being 
inspected,  the  horse  should  first  be  led  at  a  walk  in  a  direct 
line  toward  and  then  away  from  the  judge,  who  should  care- 
fully note  the  trueness  of 
movement  of  the  limbs 
and  the  way  the  feet  are 
carried.  Next  the  horse 
should  pass  by  at  a  walk, 
so  that  the  inspection 
may  be  made  from  one 
side,  to  observe  the  free- 
dom of  movement  and 
flexing  of  the  knees  and 
hocks.  The  next  step 
will  be  to  require  the 
horse  to  go  and  come  at  a 
gait  faster  than  a  walk, 
the  judge  assuming  the 
same  positions  as  before 

wViilo     tViP     wallfino-     trait       Figure  63. — Showing  correct  position  for  hold- 

wni  waiKing   gait        ing  and  examining  the  hi£d  foot>    Photo. 

was  being  studied.  See-  *raPh  by  the  author- 
ing  the  horse  at  the  walk  and  trot,  or  other  rapid  movement, 
will  enable  him  to  draw  a  conclusion  as  to  the  merits  of  the 
gait.  As  20  points  are  credited  to  the  action  of  the  carriage 
horse  on  the  score  card,  it  may  be  seen  that  this  feature  is 
highly  valued.  Persons  differ  in  their  appreciation  of  action, 
and  some  are  naturally  much  better  judges  than  others.  If, 
however,  one  will  study  the  action  from  these  three  points  of 
view,  one  will  soon  see  how  horses  differ  in  this  regard. 


190  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

POINTS  IN  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 
The  method  of  judging  the  draft  horse  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  applied  to  the  carriage  horse.  The  purpose  of 
the  true  draft  horse,  however,  is  different,  and  one  must 
have  in  mind  at  all  times  draftiness  and  conformation.  The 
following  score  card  on  page  192  is  arranged  for  a  study  of 
the  heavy  type  of  horse,  such  as  the  Percheron,  for  example. 


Figure  64. — An  example  of  a  long,  powerful  stride  in  a  light  harness  horse. 
Notice  but  one  foot  is  touching  the  ground. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  draft  horse  is  massive, 
exhibiting  great  power  in  drawing  a  load.  Weight  and  con- 
formation, therefore,  are  two  very  important  qualities  neces- 
sary in  draft  form.  The  size  must  be  large,  and  the  nearer 
the  weight  to  1,800  or  2,000  pounds  the  better.  Such  a 
weight  is  associated  with  considerable  height,  and  16J/2  to 
17  hands  will  measure  the  height  of  many  of  these  big  horses. 
An  examination  from  any  point  of  view  will  show  this  horse 
to  be  deep  and  thick,  both  at  the  ends  and  in  the  middle, 
with  a  compact,  powerful  body  set  on  rather  short  legs.  In 
the  following  part  of  this  chapter  are  some  details  the  stu- 
dent should  keep  in  mind  in  this  examination. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


191 


Figure  65. — Judging  horses.     Study  the  action  as  the  horse  comes  toward  you, 
standing    directly    in    front.     Photograph    from    Purdue    University. 


Figure  66. — Judging  horses.     Study  the  action  as  the  horse  leaves  you,  stand- 
ing directly  behind.     Photograph  from  Purdue  University. 


Figure  67. — Judging  horses, 
and  hock  action. 


As  the  horse  goes  by  at  one  side,  note  the  knee 
Photograph  from  Purdue  University. 


192 


A    STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


DRAFT  HORSE  SCORE  CARD 


Scale  of  Points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


Cor- 
rected 
score 


GENERAL    APPEARANCE:    Total  points,  13. 

NOTE  HEIGHT weight 1600  Ibs.,   or  more 

FORM,  low  set,  massive  in  proportion 

QUALITY,  showing  refinement  in  head,  clean  bone  and 

joints,  fine  skin  and  hair 

HEAD  AND  NECK:    Total  points,  7. 

HEAD,  lean,  medium  size;  forehead  broad;  eyes  bright 
and  prominent;  nostrils  large;  lips  even;  muzzle 
fine;  ears  medium  size  and  well  carried;  disposi- 
tion active  and  pleasant 

NECK,  strongly  muscled,  carried  high,  not  thick  at 

throat  latch 

FORE  QUARTERS:    Total  points,  24. 

SHOULDERS,  sloping,  smooth,  well  set  in  back 

ARMS,  short  and  wide;  forearm,  long,  widely  muscular 

KNEES,  wide  in  front,  straight,  deep  through 

CANNONS,  short,  inclined  to  be  fiat,  lean 

FETLOCKS,  wide,  straight;  pasterns  oblique,  strong.  .  . 

FEET,  large,  round,  uniform;  horn  dense;  frog  large; 
heel  wide 

LEGS,  short,  and  carried  in  good  form 

BODY:    Total  points,  9. 

CHEST,  deep,  wide,  low 

BACK,  broad,  short,  level;  ribs  long,  well  sprung;  loin 
wide,  strong 

UNDERLINE,  flanks  low 

HIND  QUARTERS:    Total  points,  37. 

HIPS,  smooth,   wide 

CROUP,  long,  level,  wide;  tail  attached  high 

THIGHS,  long,  muscular;  quarters  heavily  muscled; 
lower  thighs  wide,  strong 

HOCKS,  wide,  deep,  clean  cut,  straight,  well  supported 

CANNONS,  short,  wide,  strong 

FETLOCKS,  wide,  straight;  pasterns  oblique,  strong. .  . 

FEET,  large,  round,  uniform;  horn  dense;  frog  large; 
heel  wide 

LEGS,  short,  carried  in  good  form 

ACTION:    Total  points,  10. 

WALK,  true,  elastic,  qviick 

TROT,  active  for  weight,  regular 

Total  score  .  . 


100 


BREED. 


.AGE. 


NAME  OF  ANIMAI 

OWNER 

SCORED  BY DATE 

The  head  and  neck  show  considerable  size,  without 
the  delicate  chiseling  of  head  of  the  lighter  horse.  The  neck 
is  heavily  muscled  and  will  not  impress  one  as  having  as 
much  length  as  seen  in  the  carriage  horse. 

The  shoulders  of  the  draft  horse  are  usually  less  sloping 
than  those  of  the  lighter  type,  and  are  not  laid  back  in  quite 
as  smoothly.  The  slower,  more  moderate  draft  action  is 
associated  with  this  upright  form  of  shoulder. 


JUDGING  THE  HORSE 


193 


The  cannon  bone  of  the  draft  horse  tends  to  be  some- 
what thick  and  round  in  the  front  leg,  and  flat  and  deep  in 
the  hind  leg.  The  leg  at  this  point  lacks  the  refinement  so 
often  seen  in  the  carriage  horse.  Emphasis  should  be  placed 
on  this  bone's  being  short,  comparatively  flat,  and  deep 
from  front  to  rear.  A  good  big  draft  horse  with  plenty  of 
bone  may  measure  10  inches  around  the  front  cannon. 

The  pasterns  of  the  draft  horse  often  appear  short  and 
rather  erect.  To  give  the  easiest  movement,  they  should 
have  fair  length,  and  a  slope  of 
about  45  degrees.  Some  draft 
breeds  have  a  longer  pastern 
than  others,  as,  for  example,  the 
Clydesdale,  which  is  noted  for 
length  and  springy  character  in 
this  respect.  A  short,  stubby 
pastern  is  very  undesirable,  and 
goes  with  a  hard  gait  that  pun- 
ishes the  feet  and  causes  trouble. 

The  feet  of  the  draft  horse 
must  show  considerable  size.  The 
fore  feet  in  particular  should  not 
look  too  small  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body,  and  it  is  well  to 
emphasize  the  quality  of  the 
hoof.  The  feet  of  horses  of  this 
type,  especially  those  in  front, 
are  subject  to  severe  strain,  due  to  the  great  weight  placed  on 
them  and  the  hard  work  on  the  road.  This  part  should  be 
most  carefully  examined.  The  old  English  saying,  "No  feet, 
no  horse/'  has  no  greater  application  than  with  the  drafter. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  draft  horse  especially  signify 
power.  Great  length  and  breadth  of  the  croup,  therefore, 
provide  for  thick,  powerful  muscles.  As  one  looks  at  this 
part,  one  should  be  impressed  with  the  power  there  avail- 


Figure  68. — Judging  the  horse.  An 
excellent  front  position.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


194 


A    STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 


able.  A  common  feature  of  the  draft  horse  at  this  point  is 
steepness  of  croup.  This  is  easily  seen  whether  one  stands 
at  one  side  or  looks  from  behind.  We  do  not  have  much 
information  on  the  difference  in  power  between  horses  with 
steep  croups  and  those  having  them  more  level,  but  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  most  beautiful  conformation  goes 
with  the  more  level  condition.  The  greater  the  length  and 
the  more  heavy  the  muscling  from  the  hips  to  the  hock, 
the  more  powerful  will  be  the  croup  conformation. 

The  legs  of  the  drafter  should 
not  appear  too  wide  apart  at 
either  hock  or  knee.  Too  much 
spread  is  a  greater  indication  of 
weakness  than  is  closeness.  The 
limbs  should  come  down  in  a  well- 
placed  position,  to  stand  slightly 
under  each  corner  of  the  body, 
as  it  were.  -  In  viewing  the  horse 
from  in  front,  one  is  inclined  to 
look  for  too  great  width,  such  as 
goes  with  a  stiff  or  clumsy  gait. 

The  action  of  the  draft  horse 
is  studied  in  the  same  way  as  with 
the  driver.  More  value,  how- 
ever, is  in  this  case  given  to  the 
walk  than  to  a  faster  gait.  A 
heavy  draft  horse  is  rarely  re- 
quired to  move  faster  than  a  walk.  He  should  have  a 
quick  walk,  however,  and  be  able  to  move  four  miles  an 
hour  in  a  free,  easy  manner.  Many  heavy  horses  tend  to 
carry  the  feet  to  one  side  somewhat  when  in  motion, 
and,  in  the  language  of  the  horse  market,  "paddle"  or  "wing." 
This  tendency  is  in  a  measure  due  to  the  straight,  open- 
topped  shoulder,  and  while  such  action  is  not  defective,  it  is 
not  as  smooth  and  attractive  as  when  the  feet  are  properly 


Figure  G9. — Judging  the  horse. 
Hind  legs  too  wide  apart. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


JUDGING   THE  HORSE 


195 


carried  backward,  with  no  side  twist.  When  watching  the 
horse  in  action,  look  for  a  strong,  only  moderately  high 
knee  and  hock  movement,  but  do  not  look  for  much  speed. 
The  heavy  horse,  however,  inclines  to  drag  his  feet,  a  point 
the  judge  should  carefully  note.  As  one  stands  behind  one 
should  clearly  see  the  glisten  of  the  shoe  as  the  foot  is  raised. 
There  are  as  wide  extremes  in  action  among  draft  as  among 
carriage  horses,  but  not  so  much  should  be  expected  from 
the  former  as  the  latter.  The  horse  with  heavy  body  very 
naturally  is  unable  to  move  with  the  lightness  of  step  and 
activity  shown  by  the  horse  that  has  no  such  weight  to  carry. 

The  opportunities  to 
study  horses  are  frequent, 
either  in  town  or  country. 
If  one  will  notice  the 
horses  that  are  constant- 
ly passing,  much  infor- 
mation of  value  will  re- 
ward the  observation. 
Comparisons  may  be  re- 
peatedly made,  for  two- 
horse  teams  always  fur- 
nish such  a  chance,  while 
in  many  public  places 
two  or  more  horses  are 
often  to  be  seen  standing 
side  by  side,  interesting 
subjects  for  comparison. 
In  every  community  will 
be  found  excellent  horses 
of  their  class  that  are  well 
fed  and  cared  for.  The 
owners  of  such  horses 

usually  take  a  just  pride  in  them,  and  are  always  pleased  to 
show  them  to  those  who  are  interested. 


Figure  70. — Judging  horses.  A  powerful 
draft  conformation  from  behind.  The 
camera  being  nearer  the  hind  legs  than  the 
front,  the  former  appear  much  too  long 
and  out  of  proportion.  Photograph  from 
The  Farmer. 


196  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

AS    A    JUDGE    OF    HORSES,    WHAT 

1.  Features  are  given  the  most  credit  in  the  carriage  horse  si-ore  card? 

2.  Kind  of  head  and  neck  should  the  carriage  horse  have? 

3.  Is  the  relationship  of  body  form  to  carriage  horse  type? 

4.  Is  the  best  method  of  inspecting  the  legs? 

5.  Manner  of  front  foot  examination  is  desirable? 

6.  Kind  of  action  will  be  shown  by  a  fancy  driver? 

7.  Important  differences  exist  in  carriage  and  draft-horse  score  cards? 

8.  Size  is  desirable  in  the  draft  horse? 

9.  Slope  should  the  pastern  of  the  draft  horse  have,  and  why? 

10.  Description  can  you  give  of  the  croup  of  the  draft  horse? 

11.  Importance  should  be  given  draft  horse  action? 

FOR  OUTSIDE  OBSERVATION  AND  STUDY 

12.  Make  or  get  some  score  cards,  and  score  a  few  of  the  horses  at  home 

or  of  the  neighbors. 

13.  Get  up  a  small  horse  show  among  the  neighbors  and  have  a 

judging  contest.     Interest  the  local  horsemen. 

14.  Learn,  if  possible,  who  owns  the   best   type  of  stallion  in  the 

community.     Why  is  he  best? 

15.  Report  on  the  horse  judging  at  some  fair,  if  you  have  opportunity. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
FEEDING  THE  HORSE 

The  use  of  the  horse,  in  spite  of  the  automobile,  is  very 
general  in  both  town  and  country.  He  is  suited  to  do  many 
things  for  which  the  motor  is  not  fitted.  He  is  a  more 
economical  producer  of  power  in  short  hauls  than  is  the 
motor,  and  he  is  as  necessary  as  ever  on  the  hill  farms  and 
where  small  areas  are  cultivated.  According  to  the  1920 
census  we  had  in  the  United  States  some  20  million  horses 
and  over  5  million  mules.  These  horses  had  a  farm  value 
of  $2,000,000,000,  and  the  mules  were  valued  at  half  a  billion 
dollars,  so  we  may  see  that  the  production  of  the  horse  in 
America  is  a  great  industry.  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  Kan- 
sas, and  Texas  in  1920  were  the  leading  horse-producing 
states,  and  in  the  order  given,  with  Iowa  having  about  a 
million  and  a  third.  Texas  is  the  leading  mule-producing 
state,  with  Georgia,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee  ranking  after. 
The  use  of  the  mule  is  steadily  growing  in  favor  in  the 
United  States.  The  feeding  of  so  many  horses  and  mules 
involves  great  expense,  and,  to  be  intelligently  done,  requires 
careful  study  of  the  requirements  of  each  animal. 

The  work  of  the  horse  and  what  he  can  accomplish  de- 
pends upon  his  weight,  his  muscular  development,  and  his 
endurance.  What  is  known  as  horse-power,  is  the  power 
necessary  to  raise  33,000  pounds  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  a 
minute  against  gravity.  The  real  measure  of  horse-power 
is  based  on  the  unit  of  a  foot-pound,  shown  in  the  power 
manifested  in  raising  a  pound  one  foot.  The  horse  works 
in  different  ways,  no  matter  what  his  type,  weight  or  size. 
These  various  forms  of  work  are  well  expressed  as  follows 
by  Henry  and  Morrison:* 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 

197 


198 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 


"His  work  usually  consists  of  a  more  or  less  complex 
combination  of  the  following  simple  kinds: 

"(1)  Locomotion,  or  traveling  along  a  level  course  without 
a  load ; 

"(2)  Raising  the  body,  with  or  without  a  load,  against  the 
force  of  gravity  in  ascending  a  grade; 

"(3)  Carrying  a  load,  draft,  or  hauling  a  load. 

"A  horse  drawing  a  load  up  a  hill  combines  all  these 
types.  He  is  (1)  advancing  and  at  the  same  time  (2)  rais- 
ing his  body.  Likewise,  he  is  (3)  carrying  the  harness  and 
(4)  hauling  the  load.  In  descending  the  hill,  the  horse  will 
be  called  upon  to  perform  even  a  fifth  type  of  labor,  bracing 
himself  to  prevent  too  rapid  a  descent." 

Feeding  standards  for  the  horse  have  been  in  use  for  a 
long  time,  and,  on  the  basis  of  what  has  already  been  stated, 
the  necessity  for  different  standards  is  very  apparent.  Here 
weight  and  work  are  the  two  vital  factors.  The  following 
is  the  modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  for  horses,  as  given 
by  Henry  and  Morrison.* 

FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  HORSES 

Required  per  day  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight 


Condition  of 
work 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible 
crude  protein 

Total    digest- 
ible nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Idle.  

13-18  Ibs. 

0.8-1.0  Ib. 

7.0-9.0  Ibs. 

8.0-9.0 

Light  _  
Medium  
Heavy  

15-22  " 
16-24  " 
18-26  " 

1.1-1.4  " 
1.4-1.7  " 
2.0-2.2  " 

10.0-13.1" 
12.8-15.6  " 
15.9-19.5  " 

8.0-8.5 
7.8-8.3 
7.0-8.0 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  standard,  that  a  horse  at 
heavy  work  requires  from  5  to  8  pounds  more  dry  matter 
and  from  8.9  to  10.5  pounds  more  total  digestible  solids 
than  one  that  is  idle.  A  substantial  increase  in  work!  of  a 
permanent  nature  should  be  accompanied  by  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients  fed, 
with  a  narrowing  of  the  nutritive  ratio. 

The  preparation  of  the  feed  for  a  horse  is  important. 
The  horse  has  a  comparatively  small  stomach,  and  so,  as  his 

*Feeds  and  Feeding.  1917 


FEEDING  THE  HORSE  199 

work  increases,  concentrates  should  more  or  less  replace 
roughage.  Food  is  prepared  in  several  ways.  Dry  rough- 
age is  often  chaffed,  that  is,  cut  or  shredded.  Chaffing  re- 
duces the  work  of  the  horse  for  the  reason  that  the  more 
the  roughage  is  torn  to  pieces  by  mechanical  means,  the  less 
labor  will  be  required  of  the  horse  in  breaking  it  up.  Men 
who  care  for  horses  often  make  hay  or  straw  more  palatable 
by  chaffing,  then  mixing  with  concentrates,  and  dampening 
the  mass  with  a  light  sprinkling  of  water.  Thus  prepared, 
more  roughage  is  consumed  than  would  be  the  case  other- 
wise, and  the  sprinkling  reduces  the  dust,  which  is  in- 
jurious to  horses. 

The  grinding  of  grain  for  horses  is  not  necessary,  unless 
in  the  case  of  old  animals  with  poor  teeth.  Whole  grain  is 
appetizing  to  the  horse,  he  grinds  and  breaks  it  up  easily 
with  his  teeth,  and  it  digests  efficiently  as  thus  fed.  Crush- 
ing grain  may  be  desirable,  and  the  author  has  known  of 
city  stables  where  oats  were  run  through  a  mill  and  crushed, 
and  as  thus  fed  gave  better  returns,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
management,  than  were  secured  from  oats  fed  whole.  Cook- 
ing of  feed  has  been  resorted  to  by  horsemen  in  the  past, 
more  especially  in  Europe,  but  this  process  affects  the  digest- 
ibility of  the  proteids,  so  the  practice  is  undesirable.  What 
is  known  as  a  bran  mash,  that  is,  wetting  bran  with  hot 
water  to  make  a  thick,  fairly  moist  feed,  is  practiced.  If 
fed  at  regular  periods,  as,  for  example,  once  a  week,  it  has 
a  cooling,  laxative  effect.  Bran  mash  is  relished  by  horses, 
and  is  popular  as  an  occasional  feed.  The  soaking  of  feed 
may  sometimes  be  desirable,  especially  in  spring  when  feed- 
ing very  hard,  dry  corn  or  barley. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  best  that  the  horse  should  be  watered 
frequently.  Drinking  a  little  at  a  time,  is  better  than 
having  too  much  water  at  greater  intervals,  especially  if 
an  animal  is  overheated.  The  air  temperature  and  kind 
of  food  will  affect  the  amount  of  water  drunk,  but  about  a 


200  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

gallon  a  day  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  may  be 
given  under  fair  conditions. 

The  feeds  most  desirable  for  horses  vary  according  to 
condition  of  age,  work,  and  locality.  Oats  in  the  grain  is 
the  favorite  food  for  horses  both  in  America  and  Europe. 
There  is  no  likelihood  of  danger  from  overeating  oats, 
they  are  much  relished,  and  from  them  the  horseman  looks 
for  greater  activity  than  from  most  feeds.  Dry  ear  corn  is 
popular  in  the  corn-growing  sections,  especially  in  the  South 
and  Central  West,  where  hundreds  of  thousands  of  horses 
see  no  other  kind  of  grain.  Experiments  at  the  Ohio  sta- 
tion, conducted  by  Prof.  Carmichael,  show  no  important 
difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  corn  and  oats,  as  fed  work 
horses  under  equal  conditions.  Barley  is  fed  horses  in  some 
parts  of  America,  Europe,  and  northern  Africa,  and  meets 
with  favor.  Wheat  and  rye  are  too  pasty  for  satisfactory 
horse  feed.  Wheat  bran  has  been  fed  mixed  with  oats  and 
corn,  and  gives  good  results.  Corn  meal  is  too  heavy  for  a 
horse  feed,  unless  mixed  with  bran,  oats  or  chaffed  hay, 
when  it  will  do  very  well.  What  is  known  as  chop  feed  for 
horses  in  some  sections  consists  of  varying  proportions  of 
oats  and  cracked  or  crushed  corn,  the  percentage  of  one  to 
the  other  depending  upon  the  value  of  each  feed  in  the 
market.  As  a  rule,  two  thirds  oats  and  one  third  corn  is  a 
good  proportion.  Linseed  meal  is  a  most  excellent  feed  to 
be  given  in  small  amount  once  daily,  as,  for  example,  a  half 
pound  a  day.  This  is  a  fine  appetizer,  and  tends  to  make 
the  skin  mellow  and  the  hair  sleek  and  glossy.  Condition 
powders  or  prepared  condimental  stock  foods  are  not  to  be 
recommended.  The  linseed  meal  will  largely  serve  the  same 
purpose  and  in  fact  is  a  popular  conditioner. 

Of  all  the  dry  roughages,  timothy  hay  in  the  East  is 
the  leading  favorite.  It  is  usually  free  from  dust  and  is 
relished  by  the  horse.  Any  well  cured,  sweet  grass,  how- 
ever, will  usually  prove  satisfactory  horse  roughage.  Good 


FEEDING  THE  HORSE  201 

dry  corn  stover  is  excellent  horse  feed.  Alfalfa  hay  or  red 
clover  are  rich  in  protein  and  lime,  and  may  be  fed  to  advan- 
tage when  care  is  used.  Dust  must  be  avoided,  and  the 
leaves  should  be  free  of  mildew  or  mould.  A  combination 
of  alfalfa  or  clover  with  corn  makes  nearly  a  balanced  ration 
for  the  work  horse.  There  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  among  American  horsemen  as  to  the  suitability  of 
these  feeds  for  horses,  but  in  France  alfalfa  has  long  been 
extensively  fed  to  horses,  while  in  the  western  United  States 
it  has  been  shown  to  be  an  excellent  roughage  for  horses 
when  well  cured.  Corn  silage  may  be  safely  fed  to  horses 
in  limited  amounts,  but  it  is  important  that  it  be  bright  and 
well  cured,  free  of  all  mouldy  matter;  otherwise  serious 
results  may  occur.  Horses  do  well  on  pasture,  especially  of 
mixed  grasses  or  of  some  sort  of  blue  grass,  of  which  Ken- 
tucky blue  is  the  more  common  sort. 

Feeding  the  brood  mare.  It  is  important  to  keep  the 
brood  mare  in  good  condition.  She  should  be  kept  at  rea- 
sonably steady  work,  and  fed  so  as  not  to  lose  in  weight  or 
appear  thin  and  run-down  prior  to  foaling.  She  may  be 
fed  as  any  work  horse  might  be,  and  kept  in  good  working 
order.  If  used  for  breeding  purposes  only,  the  brood  mares 
are,  as  a  rule,  run  on  pasture  for  at  least  half  the  year,  and 
are  fed  little  grain  if  the  grass  is  good,  otherwise  special  feed 
is  also  given.  A  light  feed  of  concentrates,  especially  oats 
or  bran,  is  recommended.  Only  a  light  ration  of  these  con- 
centrates should  be  given  just  before  foaling.  The  stall  for 
foaling  should  be  very  clean  and  disinfected.  At  foaling 
time  but  a  light  mash  should  be  given,  to  be  followed  by 
grain  in  small  amount.  If  all  goes  well,  the  mare  may 
gradually  go  on  to  regular  full  feed,  and  return  to  work  in 
ten  days  or  so.  As  the  colt  grows,  the  need  for  increasing 
the  feed  of  the  mare  will  become  apparent.  If  she  is  a  good 
mother,  and  nurses  the  colt  well,  furnishing  plenty  of  milk, 
she  will  need  much  more  good  food  than  she  would  other- 


202 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  71.— A  horse  ration.  (22)  60  Ibs.  corn,  (26)  40 
Ibs.  oats,  (27)  40  Ibs.  bran.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


wise.  If  one  has  some  succulent  feed,  such  as  roots  or  silage, 
it  will  prove  very  good  for  the  mare.  The  following  are 
two  good  rations  for  a  brood  mare  at  work: 

(1)  Corn  6  parts,  oats  4,  bran  4,  timothy  or  prairie  hay  as  desired. 

(2)  Corn  6  parts,  bran  3,  alfalfa  hay  or  clover  as  desired. 

Feeding  the 
foal.  For  the  first 
three  or  four 
weeks  the  foal 
will  depend  upon 
the  mother's 
milk  for  food. 
When  about 
three  weeks  old, 
it  will  begin  to 
nibble  grain 
from  the  mother's  feed  box,  if  convenient.  Then  arrange- 
ments should  be  made  to  let  the  colt  feed  by  itself.  The 
mare  may  be  tied,  and  a  small  feed  box  in  which  a  little 
oatmeal  is  placed  be  fixed  convenient  to  the  colt.  In  a 
week  or  so  some 
bran  may  be 
added  to  this. 
When  about  two 
months  old  the 
foal  may  receive 
a  mixture  of  oats 
and  bran  in 
equal  parts  by 
weight.  When  in 
pasture  a  small 
pen  should  be  arranged  in  which  the  colt  may  be  fed  grain 
by  itself.  A  common  arrangement  is  to  fence  off  with  the 
lower  rail  high  enough  for  the  colt  to  pass  under,  but  too 
low  for  the  mare.  At  three  months  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 


Figure  72. — Another  horse  ration.     (26)    corn,  60  Ibs.; 
(27)  bran,  30  Ibs.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


FEEDING  THE  HORSE  203 

of  cracked  corn,  crushed  oats,  and  bran  will  be  relished,  to 
which  may  be  added  a  small  portion  of  oil  meal,  if  desired. 
Bright,  sweet,  leafy  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  in  season  should 
also  be  available  to  the  foal,  or,  if  these  can  not  be  supplied, 
then  hay  of  fine  quality  is  next  best. 

The  colt  in  its  younger  days  is  kept  close  to  the  mare, 
and  nurses  as  often  as  desired.  It  is  not  a  wise  plan,  how- 
ever, to  drive  the  mare  and  foal  to  town  and  back  on  hot 
days  or  to  cause  unnecessary  excitement  for  either.  Also, 
the  foal  should  not  nurse  the  mother  while  she  is  heated  and 
excited,  else  indigestion  will  be  likely,  to  occur.  Foals  are 
usually  weaned  at  from  four  to  six  months  of  age,  but  the 
time  of  weaning  depends  on  the  amount  of  milk  given  by 
the  mare  and  the  condition  of  mother  and  colt.  As  a  rule, 
'  the  colt  should  nurse  as  long  as  there  is  an  abundant  supply 
of  milk,  for  no  other  food  can  equal  the  mother's  milk. 

Feeding  growing  horses.  After  weaning  it  is  important 
to  keep  the  colt  growing  and  building  up  a  strong  frame  and 
body.  Muscle-making  foods,  therefore,  are  what  are  needed, 
such  as  legumes,  hays,  and  oats,  bran,  oil  meal,  cottonseed 
meal,  and  bean  meal.  Plenty  of  good  roughage  should  be 
fed  along  with  a  small  feed  of  grain. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  station  Cochel  and  Severson  fed 
some  draft  colts  for  a  year  and  a  half,  during  which  time 
they  made  excellent  development.  The  first  winter  the  colts 
had  a  feed  of  5  pounds  of  grain  daily,  in  2  feeds,  consisting 
of  5  parts  shelled  corn,  3  parts  oats,  2  parts  wheat  bran  and 
1  part  linseed  meal.  At  the  end  of  3  months  this  ration 
was  increased  to  7J^  pounds  per  day.  Silage  and  hay  were 
also  fed  these  colts.  The  second  winter  the  grain  consisted 
of  shelled  corn  6  parts,  oats  2,  and  bran  and  linseed  meal  1 
part  each.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  value  of  pasturage, 
and  the  wisdom  of  feeding  all  the  grain  the  colts  will  con- 
sume when  on  pasture.  Prof.  J.  L.  Edmonds,  of  the  Illinois 
station,  who  has  conducted  extensive  experiments  in  feeding 


204  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

horses,  in  reporting  on  feeding  growing  fillies,  makes  the 
following  pertinent  statement  relative  to  feeding  growing 
colts  on  Mississippi  valley  farms:* 

"Alfalfa  hay  fed  with  corn  and  oats  gave  results  of  a  character 
which  indicates  that  there  is  little  or  no  need  of  feeding  purchased  mill 
feeds  to  growing  horses  when  alfalfa  can  be  grown  on  the  farm.  JVhen 
alfalfa  hay  is  the  roughage  used,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  grain 
ration  may  safely  be  corn.  In  this  experiment  the  proportion  was  one 
half  by  weight." 

Feeding  the  work  horse.  Horses  engaged  in  draft  work 
should  be  fed  a  limited  amount  of  roughage  and  sufficient 
concentrates  to  meet  all  needs.  Of  course  the  amount  to  be 
fed  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  horse  and  the  work  he 
is  doing.  It  is  recommended  to  feed  from  two  to  three 
pounds  of  food  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight,  the  amount 
of  concentrates  ranging  from  one  half  to  two  thirds  of  the 
total,  according  to  the  severity  of  the  work.  Hard  working, 
farm  or  dray  horses  are  usually  fed  roughage  at  morning 
and  night,  with  concentrates  at  noon.  The  heaviest  feed 
should  be  given  at  night,  because  the  horse  is  then  having 
his  most  restful  period  during  24  hours,  and  so  should  eat 
and  digest  his  food  to  best  advantage.  Standard  foods, 
common  to  the  locality,  and  suited  to  horses,  should  be  used. 
Oats  meet  with  most  favor  in  the  stables  of  drayage  com- 
panies, while  on  the  farms  of  the  South  and  Central  West, 
corn  is  very  generally  used,  supplemented  in  many  cases 
with  oats  and  a  weekly  bran  mash.  In  reporting  on  feed- 
ing work  horses  at  the  Kansas  station,!  Dr.  C.  W.  McCamp- 
bell  states  that  the  following  daily  rations  were  exceptionally 
well  adapted  for  horses  at  hard  work  that  weighed  about 
1,150  pounds: 

(1)  Oats  4  Ibs.,  corn  6  Ibs.,  bran  4  Ibs.,  timothy  hay  12  Ibs. 

(2)  Corn  6  Ibs.,  bran  3  Ibs.,  linseed  meal  1  lb.,  prairie  hay  14  Ibs. 

(3)  Oats  2  Ibs.,  corn  8  Ibs.,  alfalfa  hay  10  Ibs. 

Fattening  horses.  In  some  sections  of  the  country, 
especially  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  thin  horses, 

*Bulletin  192,  Illinois  Agr.  Exp.  Station.     Feeding  Pure-Bred  Draft  Fillies. 
fBulletin  186  Kansas  Agr.  Exp.  Station,  1912. 


FEEDING  THE  HORSE 


205 


three  to  six  years  old  of  draft  type,  are  bought  and  fattened 
by  men  who  make  a  specialty  of  that  business.  Large  num- 
bers of  such  horses  have  been  fed  in  northern  Ohio,  and  then 
shipped  to  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  eastern  markets. 
These  horses  are  usually  placed  in  common  stalls  in  the  fall, 
and  fed  for  about  100  days  for  the  spring  market.  They 
are  usually  fed  corn  and  oats  heavily.  They  will  often  con- 
sume 2  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight. 
When  first  put  on  feed  fattened  horses  are  given  bran  for  a 
few  days  to  cool  them  off  and  clean  them  out,  after  which 
they  are  put  on  a  fattening  ration  of  corn,  oats,  and  bran 
and  clover  hay.  When  on  full  feed,  a  big  draft  horse  will 
eat  10  or  12  good-sized  ears  of  corn  3  times  a  day,  3  quarts 
of  oats  each  morning  and  night,  and  2  or  3  pounds  of  bran 
at  noon.  Horses  thus  fed  are  given  very  little  if  any  exer- 
cise, and  gain  in  weight  about  3  pounds  a  day. 

Watering  the  horse  may  be  done  at  any  time  when  he 
is  not  too  warm,  and  even  then  a  small  amount  may  be 


Figure  72. — The  noonday  drink.     From  a  Scotch  photograph. 


206  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

allowed.  It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  horses  should 
always  be  watered  before  rather  than  after  feeding.  Experi- 
ments have  shown,  however,  that  it  really  makes  no  differ- 
ence. It  is  best  to  water  frequently,  so  that  the  horse  will 
not  drink  too  much  at  one  time.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  water 
before  feeding,  and  then  again  in  two  or  three  hours,  if  the 
horse  is  at  regular  work.  "The  one  time  at  which  a  horse 
requires  and  appreciates  a  drink  most/'  writes  Dr.  Carl  W. 
Gay,*  "yet  is  offered  it  least  frequently,  is  the  last  thing  at 
night,  after  having  consumed  his  full  allowance  of  roughage, 
and  being  ready  to  lie  down  to  sleep.  Every  horse  having 
worked  through  the  day  should  be  allowed  an  opportunity 
to  drink  at  this  time."  Ordinarily  water  does  not  need 
to  be  warmed,  but  in  winter  in  the  colder  North  it  is  desir- 
able to  give  water  that  has  been  warmed  by  a  tank  heater 
and  is  not  icy  cold.  The  amount  of  water  a  horse  will  drink 
will  depend  upon  the  temperature  of  the  air,  on  his  work, 
and  food.  A  horse  fed  alfalfa  will  drink  more  than  one  fed 
timothy,  and,  if  the  food  is  succulent,  such  as  silage  or  pas- 
ture, the  amount  of  water  is  greatly  reduced.  Kellner  re- 
ports f  that  a  horse  will  drink  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter 
in  its  food  from  4.5  to  6.5  pounds  of  water.  Water  is  im- 
portant in  digestion,  because  it  is  the  medium  by  which  the 
food  is  softened,  broken  up,  and  moved  through  the  digestive 
tract.  As  a  part  of  the  blood,  water  carries  the  nutrients 
throughout  the  entire  body. 

Salting  the  horse  should  be  provided  for,  as  he  will  eat 
a  small  amount  of  salt  with  relish.  Salt  is  thought  to  aid 
digestion,  and  it  makes  palatable  some  feeding  stuffs.  Too 
much  salt,  however,  stimulates  drinking  water  in  excess, 
and  so  may  injure  the  digestive  processes.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  a  work  horse  might  eat  an  ounce  or  two 
a  day  to  advantage.  "Lick  stones/'  or  pressed  cakes  of 
salt  have  been  largely  sold  in  the  past  to  men  keeping  ex- 

*Produptive  Horse  Husbandry,  1914,  p.  243. 

tThe  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,  By  O.  Kellner,  1910. 


FEEDING   THE  HORSE  207 

tensive  stables  of  horses.     These  are  placed  in  the  manger 
subject  to  the  use  of  the  horse  at  all  times. 

THINGS  THE  HORSEMAN  SHOULD  KNOW 

1.  Where  the  horse  industry  is  most  prominent  in  America. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  horse-power. 

3.  The  relationship  of  the  ration  to  work  performed. 

4.  Why  some  foods  are  better  for  horses  than  others. 

5.  The  special  value  of  linseed  meal  for  horses. 

6.  How  to  feed  the  foal. 

7.  What  feed  to  use  to  secure  the  best  growth. 

8.  How  much  concentrates  should  be  fed  the  work  horse. 

9.  When  the  horse  should  be  given  water. 

10.  If  salt  is  necessary  for  the  horse. 

MAKE  A  FEW  OBSERVATIONS  ON  HORSE 
FEEDING  ABOUT  HOME 

11.  How  many  horses  are  there  to  the  square  mile  in  the  county  in 

which  you  live?     Of  what  breeds  or  types  are  they? 

12.  Ascertain  how  many  persons  out  of  fifty  in  your  section  feed  on 

the  basis  of  the  feeding  standard. 

13.  What  commercial  feeds  for  horses  are  shipped  in? 

14.  Can  you  report  on  any  fattening  of  draft  horses? 

15.  Study  the  methods  men  follow  in  giving  their  horses  drink. 

16.  Report  on  the  salting  of  horses  among  your  farmer  friends. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  CARE  OF  HORSES 

Many  things  might  be  written  regarding  the  care  of 
horses,  because  the  subject  is  a  very  broad  one  and  covers 
various  items  of  interest  and  importance ;  but  only  a  few  of 
the  more  important  features  of  management  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  limited  space  here  available. 

Regularity  in  the  care  of  the  horse  is  very  important. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  when  not  on  pasture  he  should  be 
fed  at  the  same  hour.  It  is  customary  to  feed  three  times 
daily  at  regular  hours,  and  water  before  going  to  work  and 
again  upon  return.  Grooming  also  should  be  done  at  much 
the  same  time  each  day.  Where  daily  exercise  is  necessary, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  stallion  and  horses  not  at  work,  it  will 
be  well  to  give  this  at  regular  periods.  No  animal  on  the 
farm  adjusts  itself  to  regular  habits  to  more  advantage  than 
the  horse. 

The  grooming  of  the  horse  is  quite  necessary  if  kept  in 
the  stable,  although  he  always  responds  to  this  process. 
Dust  and  dirt  on  the  skin  tend  to  close  up  the  pores,  and 
thus  to  a  certain  extent  affect  the  health  and  disposition  of 
the  animal.  Body  waste  is  thrown  off  in  sweating,  and  a 
good  brushing  will  remove  this,  stimulate  the  skin,  and  leave 
the  pores  open  and  in  better  condition  to  perform  their  work. 
If  a  horse  is  wet  from  sweat,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  first  rub 
him  off  with  a  half  round  scraper,  following  with  a  thorough 
rubbing  with  handfuls  of  dry  straw.  This  rub  leaves  a 
horse  in  good  condition  for  a  final  brushing.  A  hard  metal 
currycomb  is  not  a  good  tool  for  a  horse,  especially  on  his 
legs  and  more  sensitive  parts.  It  is  better  to  brush  him 
well  with  a  good  fiber  or  hair  brush,  although  a  dull  curry- 

208 


THE  CARE  OF  HORSES  209 

comb  may  be  used  on  the  body.  In  connection  with  the 
grooming  work,  one  should  use  a  strong  comb  and  brush  for 
putting  mane  and  tail  in  order.  A  heavy  sponge  is  always 
useful  for  sponging  off,  and  a  strong  linen  towel  makes  a 
most  useful  dust  cloth  for  polishing  -up  the  coat  of  hair.  To 
clean  out  the  hoofs,  one  may  use  a  pick  of  some  sort,  such  as 
a  hay  hook,  for  example. 

Clipping  the  horse  is  necessaiy  to  remove  the  long  hair 
in  the  spring,  after  it  has  begun  to  shed.  Formerly  this  was 
done  with  hand  clippers,  but  it  is  now  usually  performed 
with  clippers  propelled  by  machinery.  Clipping  is  common- 


Figure  74. — Brushing  off  the  brood  mare.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

ly  done  to  get  rid  of  the  hairs  which  become  annoying  unless 
clipped,  shedding  off  as  they  do  by  degrees,  and  more  or 
less  covering  the  clothing  of  persons  driving.  Vigorous 
brushing  is  a  help,  but  long,  thick  hair  had  best  be  removed 
by  the  clippers.  The  horse  feels  better  for  it,  there  is  less 
danger  with  a  wet  coat  of  his  taking  cold,  and  the  obnox- 
ious loose  hair  is  done  away  with.  The  long  hairs  within 
the  outer  ear,  which  serve  to  keep  out  insects,  should  not 
be  cut  off.  It  is  also  desirable  to  leave  the  hair  on  the 
legs  below  knee  and  hock,  for  this  gives  protection  to  the 


210  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

skin.    If  desired,  clipping  may  be  done  in  the  fall,  thus  doing 
away  with  the  necessity  of  this  operation  in  spring. 

Blanketing  the  horse  is  customary  in  winter  in  cold  cli- 
mates when  the  animal  is  unduly  exposed.  Special  made 
horse  blankets  are  used  in  cold  stables,  although  these 
should  not  be  necessary  where  the  building  is  properly  ven- 
tilated and  drafts  do  not  occur.  Humane  societies  require 
the  blanketing  of  horses  in  some  localities,  when  exposed  on 
the  streets.  A  blanket  keeps  the  coat  of  hair  more  sleek 
than  when  it  is  not  used.  In  summer  very  light,  durable 
blankets  or  nets  are  frequently  used  to  give  animals  protec- 
tion from  flies.  The  man  who  blankets  his  horse  to  give 
protection  from  either  cold  or  flies  is  no  doubt  kindly  of 
nature  and  seeks  to  make  his  animals  comfortable. 

The  care  of  the  feet  of  the  horse  is  of  much  importance. 
The  foot  of  the  horse  is  discussed  on  page  167.  Its  care  is 
another  matter.  The  hoofs  should  have  a  uniform  de- 
velopment, and  not  lose  their  shape.  Long  toes,  lack  of 
uniformity  of  length  of  hoof  on  opposite  sides,  and  low  flat 
heels, — any  one  of  these  result  in  defective  feet  and  improper 
gait.  The  hoof  should  be  kept  trimmed  so  as  to  secure  a 
natural,  uniform  shape,  with  strong  walls.  The  frog  should 
never  be  cut,  only  the  tag  ends  trimmed  off,  so  that  it  may 
serve  as  a  buffer  when  the  foot  hits  the  ground.  The  bars 
should  not  be  cut  down,  and  the  sole  made  concave,  a  process 
which  weakens  the  foot  and  narrows  the  heel,  giving  a  more 
or  less  contracted  foot.  It  is  desirable  to  clean  out  each 
hoof  with  a  pick  every  day  and  brush  out  all  foreign  matter. 

If  a  horse  stands  on  foul  soil  or  manure,  a  disease  called 
thrush  may  develop  in  the  frog,  and  lameness  result.  Thrush 
appears  as  a  dark  colored  pus  of  foul  odor  in  the  cleft  of  the 
frog,  which  presents  a  somewhat  open  appearance  when  it 
should  be  dry  and  close.  For  treatment  the  loose  parts  of 
the  frog  should  be  trimmed  away,  and  the  foot  well  cleaned 
and  sterilized,  after  which  copper  sulphate  may  be  packed 


THE  CARE  OF  HORSES  211 

in  the  crevices  of  the  foot.  An  absolutely  clean,  dry  stall 
is  a  necessity  for  healthy,  good  feet.  Sometimes  the  feet 
become  too  dry  and  brittle,  in  which  case  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  soak  them  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time  in  a  shallow  pan  or 
trough.  Capable  horsemen,  who  watch  the  feet  of  their 
horses  carefully,  occasionally  rub  neats-foot  or  sweet  oil  on 
the  hoofs,  which  prevents  their  becoming  too  dry.  The 
horse  should  be  kept  properly  shod,  and  the  feet  inspected 
from  time  to  time  to  note  the  condition  of  the  shoes  and 
see  that  they  do  not  become  loose. 

The  treatment  of  sores  and  wounds  on  the  horse  is  a 
comparatively  simple  matter.     A  first  requirement  is  cleanli- 
ness.    In  general  a  sore  or  wound  should  first  be  bathed 
with  pure  sterilized  warm  water.     A  wound  or  cut  should 
be  disinfected  with  some  easily-obtained,  healing  solution. 
Common  coal-tar  sheep  dip,  or  creolin,  diluted  50  times,  is 
a  popular  disinfectant.     A  three  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  soft  water  is  also  recommended  for  this  purpose.     Dr. 
Hadley  states*  that  "bandages  or  other  dressings  must  be 
changed  as  soon  as  they  become  saturated  with  the  wound 
secretions.     At  this  time  the  wound  is  cleaned  with  an  anti- 
septic solution.     The  surface  of  the  wound  should  be  sopped 
instead  of  rubbed,  to  avoid  irritation  and  injury  to   the 
newly  formed  granulation  tissue.     A  dusting  powder,  com- 
posed of  iodoform  or  boric  acid,  or  equal  parts  of  iodoform, 
boric  acid,  and  tannic  acid,  may  be  sifted  on  the  wound 
to  check  secretions  and  promote  healing.     If  pus  has  a  tend- 
ency to  collect  in  pockets,  these  should  be  swabbed  out  daily 
or  opened  so  as  to  allow  free  drainage."  Tincture  of  iodine, 
as  prepared  by  a  druggist  for  bruises  and  wounds,  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  healing  and  antiseptic  remedies  available. 
Where  the  harness  rubs  and  tends  to  produce  sores,  as  on 
the  shoulders  and  neck,  the  pressure  on  the  bruised  part 
should  be  relieved.     It  is  also  a  good    plan   to  wash  the 
shoulders,  neck  and  withers  morning  and  night  with  salt 

*The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease,  1915. 


212  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

water,  using  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart  of  water.  In 
the  case  of  serious  sores  or  wounds  the  wisest  policy  will  be 
to  secure  the  services  of  a  competent  veterinarian  for  treat- 
ment if  the  expense  incurred  is  not  too  great. 

The  sanitation  of  the  horse  stable  is  of  much  importance. 
In  those  stables  where  manure  accumulates,  and  the  floor 
is  moist,  a  strong  smell  of  ammonia  is  very  common.  Here 
we  find  an  unsanitary  condition,  from  which  results  a  more 
or  less  unhealthy  condition  of  the  feet.  The  stall  should  be 
kept  clean,  the  manure  removed  each  day,  and  dry  bedding 
of  some  form  supplied.  Bright  straw  or  shavings  are  popu- 
lar materials  for  bedding,  and  readily  absorb  moisture  under- 
foot. Ventilation  is  especially  important  in  the  horse 
stable.  The  temperature  of  the  horse  stable  should  be  cool 
rather  than  warm.  Captain  Hayes,  a  noted  authority  on 
horses,  writing  on  the  subject  of  the  temperature  of  the 
stable,  says:* 

"I  have  had  many  opportunities  in  Russia  for  comparing  the  relative 
healthiness,  during  very  cold  weather,  of  hot  stables  and  of  those  kept 
at  a  natural  temperature.  In  large  towns  in  Russia  the  practice  through- 
out the  winter  is  to  have  stables  at  a  temperature  of  from  50  to  60  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  the  difference  between  the  temperature  inside  and  outside 
being  not  infrequently  over  80  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Consequently, 
influenza,  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  diseases  of  the  organs  of  breath- 
ing, especially  roaring  among  big  horses,  are  common  in  these  abodes. 
In  the  Russian  cavalry  remount  depots  an  entirely  different  course  is 
pursued;  for  the  stables  at  these  places  are  immensely  roomy,  very 
lofty,  and  are  ventilated  so  freely  and  kept  so  clean,  that  even  in  the 
early  mornings,  before  the  horses  are  taken  put,  the  air  inside  is  free 
from  any  suspicion  of  closeness.  It  is  instructive  to  note  that  the  horses 
kept  in  them  maintain  their  health  during  the  extremely  cold  winter  in 
the  same  excellent  manner  they  do  in  summer." 

The  breaking  and  training  of  the  colt  is  a  most  important 
feature  of  management.  A  few  rules  relating  to  this  process 
is  all  that  can  be  offered  here.  Colts  differ  widely  in  tem- 
perament and  disposition,  and  each  one  is  a  problem  in  it- 
self. It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  friendly  relationship  with 
the  colt  when  it  is  very  young,  long  before  the  process  of 
training  begins.  It  should  be  petted  and  made  familiar  with 
its  future  master,  that  confidence  may  be  established.  The 

*Stable  Management  and  Exercise,  1900. 


THE  CARE  OF  HORSES 


213 


use  of  the  halter  is  first  necessary,  and  it  may  be  put  on  at  a 
very  early  age,  long  before  being  weaned.  Next,  the  colt 
should  be  taught  to  stand  tied.  Some  colts,  especially  of 
the  draft  type,  very  readily  adapt  themselves  to  halter  or 
bridle,  as  well  as  to  the  harness  and  work.  Light  horses  of 
the  hot-blooded  sort,  are  not  so  easily  educated.  Prof. 
Roberts,  an  old  horseman,  says:* 

"With  rare  exceptions,  the  colt  on  the  farm  is  made  usable  if,  for  a 
few  hours  each  day  for  a  week,  he  is  subjected  to  the  restraints  of  a 
bitting  harness  in  the  open  paddock.  The  check  and  side-rein  should 


Figure  75. — Putting  the  collar  on  the  young  horse  for  the  first  time.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

be  left  slack  at  first.  Gradually  from  day  to  day  the  reins  may  be 
shortened;  provided,  however,  they  are  never  made  so  short  as  to  place 
the  head  in  an  uncomfortable  position  or  draw  the  bit  so  tightly  into  the 
corners  of  his  mouth  as  to  make  them  sore.  After  the  bitting,  the  colt 
may  wear  the  harness  and  be  driven  with  lines  in  the  open  field,  without 
being  attached  to  a  vehicle.  The  next  step  is  to  drive  him  for  a  few 
hours  each  day  by  the  side  of  a  good-sized,  staid,  mature  farm  horse 
attached  to  a  farm  wagon,  which  should  be  furnished  with  a  brake.  The 
lesson  of  training  should  be  continued  without  interruption  until  he 
knows  what  is  expected  of  him.  When  given  the  command  Whoa!, 
accompanied  by  a  firm  yet  not  rough  pull  on  the  lines,  he  should  prompt- 
ly stop.  When  the  command  "get  up"  is  given,  along  with  a  slap  of  the 

*The  Horse— By  Isaac  Phillips  Roberts,  1905. 


214  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

reins,  it  means  go  forward.  If  it  is  desired  that  the  horse  back,  then  he 
is  given  the  word  "back,"  accompanied  with  a  backvyard  pull  on  the 
reins.  The  word  "steady"  is  commonly  used  to  caution  a  horse  as  to 
his  movements,  that  he  may  not  act  too  fast.  With  farm  teams,  the 
command  "gee"  signifies  a  turn  to  the  right,  while  "haw"  means  a  turn 
to  the  left.  Ordinarily  haw  and  gee  are  used  in  the  field  when  the 
reins  cannot  easily  be  used,  as  in  plowing,  cultivating,  etc.  Horses 
should  not  be  required  to  work  until  they  have  matured  enough  to  bear 
the  service  without  injury.  If  compelled  to  do  hard  work  before  he  is 
four  years  old,  his  development  may  be  much  injured." 

The  harness  of  the  horse  in  its  simplest  form,  consists 
of  three  pieces,  bridle,  breast  harness  or  collar,  and  saddle. 
These  and  their  use  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows: 


Figure  76. — A  pair  of  draft  horses  in  harness.   Photograph  by  Prof.  W.  J.  Decker. 

The  bridle  consists  of  the  bit,  cheek  straps,  brow  band, 
throatlatch,  and  checkrein.  There  may  or  may  not  be 
blinds.  There  are  many  kinds  of  bits,  but  under  most  con- 
ditions on  the  farm  a  plain  single  bar  bit  is  all  that  is  needed. 
Sometimes  the  bar  is  covered  with  leather  or  rubber  as  bet- 
ter suited  to  the  tender  mouth.  By  adjusting  the  length  of 
the  cheek  pieces,  the  bit  may  be  fitted  to  the  mouth,  so  that 
it  will  be  neither  too  loose  nor  too  tight,  crossing  the  bars  of 


THE  CARE  OF  HOUSES  215 

the  mouth  just  back  of  the  tushes.  Blinds  are  used  by 
some  persons,  and  some  horses  handle  better  with  these  on 
the  harness  than  without  them.  A  bridle  without  blinds  is 
known  as  an  "open  bridle."  The  checkrein  extends  from 
the  bits  to  the  top  of  the  saddle  by  way  of  the  poll  or  through 
loops  attached  to  the  upper  parts  each  side  of  the  bridle. 
The  checkrein  is  intended  to  assist  the  horse  in  holding  up 
his  head  and  neck  in  an  easy,  graceful  manner,  to  keep  him 
under  restraint  so  he  will  not  attempt  to  eat  when  at  work, 
or  move  the  head  and  neck  about  so  as  to  disarrange  the 
harness.  A  too  tight  check  is  punishment  for  the  horse. 

The  breast  harness  consists  of  a  flat  strap  which  extends 
down  over  each  side  of  the  neck  just  in  front  of  the  withers, 
the  ends  supporting  a  breast  piece,  which  connects  with  the 
tugs  by  means  of  which  a  light  vehicle  is  pulled.  The  breast 
harness  should  be  carefully  adjusted,  so  that  the  breast 
piece  will  pull  neither  too  high  nor  too  low  against  the  breast, 
interfering  with  free  action  of  limbs  or  breathing. 

The  collar  used  in  heavy  work  harnesses,  in  place  of  the 
breast  harness,  varies  in  the  material.  It  should  consist  of  a 
frame  of  leather  or  other  material,  shaped  to  fit  the  neck 
and  shoulders.  Most  collars  have  sweat  pads  on  top  and 
sides,  so  that  with  work  the  neck  and  shoulders  will  not  be- 
come sore.  The  exterior  of  the  collar  has  a  groove,  in  which 
fits  a  pair  of  hames.  At  the  lower  part  of  each  hame  is 
attached  one  end  of  the  heavy  tug  of  leather  or  other  material, 
the  other  end  of  which  is  hooked  to  the  vehicle  or  implement 
to  be  hauled.  Much  care  must  be  used  in  the  fit  of  collar. 
It  should  not  chafe  or  bruise  the  skin  or  make  the  rougher 
parts  of  the  shoulder  or  joint  sore.  The  tugs  should  be  so 
adjusted  that  when  a  load  is  drawn  the  animal's  wind  will 
not  be  shut  off  and  the  weight  of  the  load  will  be  properly 
distributed  over  the  collar.  Each  horse  should  have  his  own 
collar,  and  care  be  taken  to  see  that  it  fits  the  neck  right. 
A  new  collar  requires  some  time  for  adjustment. 


216  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  saddle  extends  over  the  back  just  behind  the  withers, 
on  the  top  of  which  are  two  rings,  through  which  the  driving 
lines  pass  from  the  ends  of  the  bits  to  the  driver  behind. 
The  saddle,  which  crosses  the  back,  is  held  in  place  by  several 
pieces.  The  checkrein  may  slip  over  a  hook  at  the  saddle 
top.  From  the  rear  there  extends  a  backstrap  along  over 
the  spine  to  the  center  point  between  the  hips,  where  another 
strap  called  the  crupper  is  buckled,  which  passes  under  the 
tail.  Thus  we  have  a 'continuous  line  from  mouth  to  root  of 
tail,  which  assists  in  keeping  the  harness  in  place.  The 
lower  part  of  the  saddle  has  its  ends  connected  by  means  of 
a  belly  band,  so  that  it  may  be  held  securely  in  place.  A 
breeching  piece  which  extends  around  back  of  the  hind 
quarters,  is  supported  in  place  by  straps,  the  upper  ends  of 
which  are  attached  to  the  backstrap  at  a  point  between  the 
hips.  There  are  many  styles  of  harnesses  and  methods  of 
harnessing;  but,  no  matter  what  the  style,  it  is  of  first 
importance  that  the  harness  fit  right  in  all  its  parts,  and 
that  the  horse  or  mule  wearing  it  be  made  comfortable  in 
its  adjustment. 

IN  CARING  FOR  HORSES 

1.  How  much  regularity  should  be  observed? 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  grooming? 

3.  When  is  clipping  resorted  to,  and  why? 

4.  How  does  a  blanket  affect  the  hair? 

5.  What  should  be  done  to  prevent  thrush? 

6.  Explain  how  you  would  treat  a  wound. 

7.  What  attention  should  be  given  to  stable  temperature? 

8.  How  should  the  colt  be  trained  to  use  of  the  harness? 

9.  At  what  age  should  colts  be  compelled  to  do  hard  work? 

10.  What  attention  should  be  given  to  fit  of  the  collar? 

INTERVIEW  SOME  MEN  ON  THE  CARE  OF  THEIR  HORSES 

11.  How  generally  is  regular  grooming  resorted  to? 

12.  Is  winter  blanketing  universal  in  your  neighborhood? 

13.  Is  the  care  of  the  foot  left  to  the  blacksmith  alone? 

14.  What  is  commonly  used  for  treating  sores  or  wounds? 

15.  Are  absorbents  or  disinfectants  used  in  the  stable? 

16.  How  are  colts  "broken-in"  by  most  horsemen? 

17.  What  kind  of  bits  are  common,  (a)  for  harness  horses,  (b)  for  draft 

horses? 


CHAPTER  XX 
BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

The  first  cattle  of  which  we  have  any  information 
existed  in  Europe  in  prehistoric  times.  The  bones  and  skele- 
tons of  two  very  different  types  of  cattle  have  been  found 
in  Great  Britain  and  parts  of  Europe.  One  of  these  was  very 
much  larger  than  the  cattle  of  to-day,  and  has  been  called 
the  Giant  Ox.  The  other  is  much  smaller  and  finer  of  bone. 
The  skeletons  of  these  two  forms  are  quite  similar  to  the 
cattle  of  our  own  time.  Many  bones  of  these  animals  have 
been  found,  and  it  is  believed  that  even  in  the  stone  and  the 
bronze  age  many  thousands  of  years  ago  people  had  cattle 
more  or  less  domesticated.  Pliny  and  the  earliest  historians 
refer  to  swift  and  fierce  wild  bulls,  called  Uri,  that  were 
found  in  the  forests  and  meadows  of  Germany  and  other 
parts  of  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
early  Romans  captured  specimens  of  these  wild  bulls  and 
took  them  to  Rome  and  used  them  in  their  brutal  festivities. 

Wild  White  Cattle  have  been  known  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Wales  since  earliest  historical  times.  These  cattle 
lived  in  great  parks.  They  had  upright  horns,  were-covered 
with  shaggy  hair,  and  were  pure  white  in  color,  except  the 
hair  about  the  ears  and  muzzle,  which  was  usually  a  dark 
red  or  black.  Numerous  small  herds  of  these  cattle  are 
kept  to-day  in  Great  Britain,  the  most  famous  of  which  is 
at  Chillingham  Park  in  northeastern  England.  This  herd, 
which  numbers  only  60  or  70  animals,  runs  wild  on  an  estate 
of  1,100  acres.  They  have  never  been  tamed,  but  live  by 
themselves  back  among  the  hills  in  the  forests  and  meadows. 
It  is  believed  that  these  wild  cattle  are  descended  from  the 
Giant  Ox,  and  are  the  connecting  link  between  the  prehistoric 

217 


218  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

form  and  our  domesticated  cattle  of  the  present  time. 
Shorthorn  Cattle.  This  noted  breed,  formerly  called  Dur- 
ham cattle,  originated  in  northeast  England,  in  the  counties 
of  Durham  and  York.  The  river  Tees  flows  through  a  pretty 
valley,  and  for  some  distance  is  the  boundary  line  between 
these  two  counties.  This  region,  many  years  ago,  was  called 
the  Teeswater  country,  and  the  large  cattle  found  here  in 
northern  Yorkshire  were  known  as  "Teeswater  Cattle."  In 
southern  Yorkshire,  in  what  is  called  Holderness,  was  another 
kind  of  cattle  having  some  things  in  common  with  the  Tees- 
water.  Many  of  these  were  black.  There  were  also  red  or 
red-and-white  cattle  in  other  sections  not  far  from  here. 


Figure  77. — A  herd  of  Wild  White  Cattle  at  Vaynol  Park,  Wales.     Photograph 
by  the  author. 

Some  cattle  of  superior  milking  qualities  were  brought  over 
from  Holland,  also,  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  From 
these  various  sources  came  the  Shorthorn.  In  this  section 
of  England  the  grazing  was  fine;  and  the  city  of  Darlington, 
by  the  river  Tees  in  Durham,  became  in  time  a  great  cattle 
market  and  gathering  place  for  stockmen. 

The  improvement  of  the  Shorthorn  began  over  a  century 
ago.  Two  brothers,  Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  who  lived 
on  separate  farms  north  of  Darlington,  did  much  to  improve 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE  219 

the  native  stock  between  1775  and  1820.  Some  have  called 
them  the  founders  of  the  Shorthorn  breed,  but  this  claim 
is  probably  incorrect.  They  improved  the  local  cattle  so 
that  they  matured  earlier,  fed  better,  and  had  less  waste  at 
slaughter  than  the  parent  stock  with  which  they  began. 

Thomas  Bates  lived  in  this  same  region,  east  of  Darling- 
ton, and  he  bred  a  type  of  large,  handsome  cattle,  noted  for 
both  beef  and  milk  production.  Shorthorns  of  his  breeding 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  criti- 
cised for  lack  of  vigor.  He  produced  the  Duchess,  Waterloo, 
Wild  Eyes,  Oxford,  and  other  families.  Bates  died  in  1849. 


Figure    78. — Shorthorn   bull    Ringmaster,    a   noted    champion   bull    and   sire. 
Owned  by  White  and  Smith  of  Minnesota.     Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 

Thomas  Booth,  another  great  breeder,  began  to  keep 
Shorthorns  about  1780  on  a  farm  in  Yorkshire,  southeast  of 
Darlington.  He  had  two  sons,  John  and  Richard,  who  also 
became  famous  breeders.  Their  cattle  had  thicker  chests, 
were  somewhat  rougher  in  form,  and  perhaps  better  feeders 
than  the  Bates  cattle,  and  became  very  popular.  The  Booths 
produced  the  Anna,  Isabella,  Bracelet,  Moss  Rose,  and  some 


220  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

other  families.  The  Ceilings,  Bates,  and  the  Booths  were 
famous  as  among  the  greatest  improvers  of  Shorthorn  cattle 
that  have  ever  lived  in  England. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  Scotchman  by  the 
name  of  Robertson  introduced  the  first  Shorthorns  to  Scot- 
land and  began  breeding  them  on  his  estate  at  Ladykirk  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tweed.  This  was  in  the  South.  In  1829 
Captain  Barclay  brought  the  first  cattle  of  the  breed  to 
north  Scotland.  In  1837,  up  in  Aberdeen,  where  the  winters 
are  cold  and  rough,  and  the  soil  not  the  richest,  Amos  Cruick- 
shank  began  breeding  Shorthorns,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  was  the  greatest  breeder  in  the  history  of  Scotland. 
He  developed  what  are  known  to-day  as  "Scotch  Short- 
horns." They  are  noted  for  their  early  maturity,  compact 
forms,  strong  constitutions,  and  fine  killing  qualities.  Scotch 
cattle  seemed  to  produce  less  milk  than  those  bred  by  Bates, 
but  were  thicker-fleshed,  so  that  butchers  liked  them  better. 
Cruickshank  produced  quite  a  number  of  the  most  popular 
families  of  to-day,  among  which  the  Brawith  Bud,  Clipper, 
Duchess  of  Gloster,  Lovely,  Orange  Blossom,  Spicy,  Venus, 
Victoria,  and  Violet  may  be  mentioned.  Two  other  great 
Scotch  breeders  have  played  a  leading  part  in  Shorthorn 
history,  on  account  of  their  constructive  breeding,  William 
Marr,  of  Uppermill,  and  William  Duthie,  of  Collynie. 

The  distribution  of  Shorthorns  is  world-wide.  It  is  the 
most  common  breed  of  English-speaking  countries,  and  more 
great  improvers  of  live  stock  have  been  found  among  Short- 
horn breeders  than  any  other  one  breed.  So  common  is  the 
Shorthorn,  and  so  well  is  it  suited  to  different  conditions, 
that  long  ago  it  was  nicknamed  "The  Universal  Intruder." 

The  introduction  of  the  Shorthorn  to  America  occurred 
in  1783,  when  a  few  were  imported  into  Virginia  by  Gough 
and  Miller.  These  men  imported  still  others  about  1792. 
From  this  time  on  the  Shorthorn  continued  to  be  brought  to 
the  American  states  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  1834  a  very 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE  221 

important  shipment  came  to  Ohio,  selected  for  the  Ohio 
Importing  Company.  Since  then  many  thousands  of  Short- 
horns have  been  imported,  and  are  found  distributed  widely 
in  North  and  South  America. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Shorthorn  are  very  marked. 
The  color  is  red,  red-and-white,  pure  white,  or  a  mingling 
of  red  and  white  hair  forming  what  is  called  a  roan.  No 
other  breed  possesses  this  peculiar  Shorthorn  roan  color, 
which  has  long  been  very  popular  among  the  breeders.  In 
size  this  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds,  and  bulls  at  maturity 
should  weigh  in  ordinary  condition  2,000  pounds  or  more, 


Figure  79. — A  fine  Shorthorn  matron  on  an  Ohio  Farm.     Photograph  by  the 

author. 

and  cows  1,400  pounds  and  upward.  The  head  should  be 
lean  and  shapely,  and  short  from  between  the  eyes  to  the 
muzzle,  which  should  be  of  flesh  color,  dark  noses  being  un- 
popular. The  horns  usually  are  of  medium  size  and  of  a 
white  or  waxy  color,  in  most  cases  curving  around  in  front 
like  a  semicircle  rather  than  standing  upright.  Shorthorns 
should  have  wide  strong  backs  and  large  bodies.  The  hind 
quarters  are  noted  for  their  thick,  meaty  development, 
though  the  rump  and  tail  head  tend  to  be  patchy  and  rough. 


222 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Shorthorns  have  been  criticised  for  having  plain,  somewhat 
prominent  shoulders,  and  for  being  rather  long  of  leg.  These 
criticisms,  however,  do  not  so  generally  apply  to  cattle  of 
Scotch  ancestry.  In  disposition  the  Shorthorn  is  unexcelled. 
As  a  butcher's  beast  fair  examples  of  the  breed  rank  high, 
the  fattened  animal  dressing  out  well  at  slaughter  and 
producing  a  superior  quality  of  meat  that  is  a  favorite  on 
the  market.  Although  especially  suited  to  the  range,  Short- 
horns do  almost  equally  well  under  conditions  of  arable  farm- 
ing, where  extensive  use  of  pasturage  or  range  is  not  available. 


Figure  80. — A  first  prize  Milking  Shorthorn  at  the  show  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  England.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  Shorthorn  in  milk  production  ranks  at  the  top  among 
the  beef  and  so-called  dual-purpose  breeds.  It  is  a  common 
thing  for  dairy  Shorthorns  to  produce  5,000  or  6,000  pounds 
of  milk  a  year.  Many  cows  of  the  breed  have  produced 
over  10,000  pounds,  while  Rose  of  Glenside  made  the  wonder- 
ful record  of  18,075  pounds  in  a  year.  There  have  been 
some  remarkable  records  of  production  during  continuous 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE  223 

years,  among  which  Darlington  Cranford  5th  gave  over 
100,000  pounds  of  milk  during  ten  years.  Shorthorn  milk 
tests  around  4  per  cent  fat,  and  many  excellent  butter-fat 
records  have  been  made.  At  least  300  pounds  of  fat  should 
be  made  in  a  year  by  a  fair  example  of  the  breed.  An 
Australian  cow,  Melba  VII,  produced  868  pounds  in  a  year, 
and  Rose  of  Glenside,  in  her  test  above  referred  to,  made  735 
pounds  of  fat.  Milking  Shorthorns  have  grown  greatly  in 
popularity  in  recent  years.  Among  the  more  favorably  known 
families  are  the  Clay,  Waterloo,  Kinsella,  and  Buttercup. 

Remarkable  prices  have  been  paid  for  Shorthorn  cattle 
now  for  over  a  century.  In  1811  at  the  sale  of  Charles 
Colling  the  bull  Comet  sold  for  $5,000.  In  1873  at  the  New 
York  Mills  sale,  109  animals  sold  for  $381,990,  an  average 
of  $3,504,  the  cow  Eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva  bringing  the 
top  price  of  history  for  a  cow,  $40,600.  In  1919  the  bull 
Gartley  Lancer  sold  in  Scotland  for  $23,750,  while  two  other 
bulls  brought  $21,000  each. 

Polled  Shorthorns  are  bred  and  registered  separately, 
although  from  pure  Shorthorn  ancestry.  They  were  first 
called  Polled  Durhams,  but  since  1919  have  been  known  as 
Polled  Shorthorns.  They  do  not  differ  from  ordinary  Short- 
horns except  that  they  are  polled.  They  have  not  greatly 
grown  in  popularity. 

The  Hereford  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  the  county  of 
Hereford,  in  southwest  England.  There  are  many  beauti- 
ful meadows  and  grassy  hills  in  this  region.  The  cattle 
graze  here  the  whole  year  and  are  rarely  kept  under  roof. 
We  know  but  little  of  the  origin  of  this  breed.  Cattle  have 
thrived  in  this  part  of  England  for  centuries.  One  noted 
English  judge  of  live  stock  over  a  hundred  years  ago  gave 
the  opinion  that  the  Hereford  might  have  been  the  first  breed 
on  the  island.  Some  time  before  1671,  white-faced  cattle 
were  brought  from  Holland  to  Hereford,  and  some  think  the 
Herefords  get  their  white  faces  from  these  cattle  Late  ill 


224 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


the  eighteenth  century,  the  common  color  of  the  breed  was 
red  with  a  white  face.  As  with  the  Shorthorn,  a  number  of 
men  became  noted  Hereford  improvers  and  did  much  for 
these  cattle.  The  Tomkins  family  is  the  most  famous  of 
early  days.  There  was  Benjamin  the  Elder,  who  died  in 
1789,  and  Benjamin  the  Younger,  who  died  in  1815.  These 
men  produced  many  famous  animals  and  did  much  for  the 
breed.  William  Galliers,  John  Price,  and  John  Hewer  also 


Figure  81. — Hereford  bull,  Richard  Fairfax,  purchased  for  $50,000  by  Ferguson 
Brothers  of  Minnesota  from  L.  A.  Pinnard.  This  is  the  highest  price  paid 
for  a  beef  bull  iu  the  United  States.  Photograph  from  Ferguson  Brothers. 

did  much  to  improve  the  Hereford.  John  Hewer  sought  for 
more  size,  quality,  and  uniformity  of  color.  He  bred  many 
famous  animals  during  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Here- 
fords  were  first  brought  to  America  by  that  famous  states- 
man, Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky.  He  took  much  interest  in 
pure-bred  live  stock.  Mr.  W.  H.  Sotham,  a  native  of  Here- 
ford, who  emigrated  to  America  in  1840,  brought  some  of 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE  225 

these  cattle  to  Albany,  New  York.  Mr.  Sotham  did  much 
to  make  the  breed  popular  in  this  country  during  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

About  1875,  men  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  the  West,  who 
owned  a  great  deal  of  land,  became  interested  in  the  Here- 
ford. Since  then  these  cattle  have  become  very  popular 
in  the  grazing  sections  of  the  West,  and  are  found  in  large 
numbers  beyond  the  Mississippi,  although  choice  breeding 
herds  are  to  be  found  in  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Minnesota,  and 
Illinois.  Recently  the  Hereford  has  obtained  an  important 
foothold  in  the  Gulf  Coast  states  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Hereford  are  very  marked. 
The  color  is  its  most  striking  feature,  the  head  being  white, 
as  is  often  also  the  top  of  the  neck,  the  breast,  brush  of  the 
tail,  and  legs  below  knees  and  hocks,  the  rest  of  the  body 
being  red.  The  red  color  varies  from  light  to  dark,  the  pre- 
ference being  for  a  bright  cherry  red.  The  skin  at  the 
muzzle  should  always  be  of  a  clear  flesh  color.  The  white 
head,  which  is  short  from  muzzle  to  eye,  often  somewhat 
dished  of  face,  and  crowned  with  beautiful,  forward  curving 
waxy-white  horns,  represents  the  ideal  for  stamina,  sex  char- 
acter, and  feeding  capacity.  In  size  and  weight  the  Here- 
ford closely  resembles  the  Shorthorn.  Hereford  cattle  are 
conspicuous  for  their  wide  backs,  deep  bodies,  and  short 
legs.  They  frequently  show  considerable  dewlap  and 
brisket,  and  have  beautiful  smooth  shoulders.  The  hind 
quarters,  however,  tend  to  be  somewhat  narrow  and  rough. 
They  are  noted  for  their  hardiness  and  adaptability  to  all 
sorts  of  grazing  conditions,  thriving  well  with  the  least  grain 
and -shelter.  The  heavy  curly  winter  coat  of  hair  and  thick 
mellow  skin  gives  the  Hereford  protection  which  other  breeds 
lack  in  an  equal  degree.  Hereford  cattle  mature  early  and 
are  noted  for  baby  beef  production,  attaining  1,000  to  1,200 
pounds  when  well  fed,  at  less  than  two  years  of  age.  In  the 
market  Hereford  steers  are  popular  with  buyers,  and  kill 


226 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


out  a  high  percentage  of  carcass  to  offal.  The  cows  of  the 
breed  are  inferior  milkers,  as  a  rule,  though  yielding  an  excel- 
lent grade  of  milk.  In  disposition  Herefords  tend  to  be 
more  or  less  nervous  and  restless  as  compared  with  the  Short- 
horn and  are  not  so  well  suited  to  stable  confinement. 

The  quality  of  "rustling,"  as  they  say  in  the  West, 
fine  constitution,  and  ability  to  make  early  beef,  have  made 
the  breed  extremely  popular  in  the  range  country  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Argentina,  and  Australia.  Among 
the  popular  families  are  the  Anxiety,  Beau  Donald,  Corrector, 
Disturber,  March  On,  Perfection,  and  Prime  Lad.  High 
prices  have  been  paid  for  Herefords,  and  in  1917,  1918,  and 


Figure  82. — An  exhibitor's  herd  of  Herefords  at  the  fair.     Photograph  from 
The  Farmer. 

1919  very  high  prices  prevailed.  In  1919  Mousel  Brothers, 
of  Nebraska,  sold  50  head  for  an  average  price  of  $3,845,  and 
in  1919  W.  T.  McCray,  of  Indiana,  sold  120  head  for  an 
average  of  $3,635,  the  record  for  any  breed  of  cattle.  In 
1919  the  bull  Richard  Fairfax  was  bought  by  Ferguson 
Brothers,  of  Minnesota,  for  $50,000,  then  the  world's  record 
price  for  a  bull.  Two  bulls  sold  in  1918  in  England,  one, 
Ringer,  for  $45,000  and  the  other,  Resolute,  for  $40,000. 

Polled  Hereford  cattle  of  much  merit  are  bred  to-day  in 
large  numbers.     This  line  of  breeding  first  started  with  grade 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


227 


cattle  in  Kansas.  About  1900,  through  an  effort  to  secure 
pure-bred  stock  from  regular  Hereford  ancestry,  a  number 
of  polled  bulls  and  cows  were  secured  by  Warren  Gammon, 
of  Iowa.  Since  1900,  when  a  Polled  Hereford  Association 
was  organized,  cattle  of  this  type  have  been  built  upon  a 
pure  foundation  tracing  back  to  horned  Herefords.  Polled 
Herefords  are  now  widely  bred  in  America,  with  Iowa  the 
central  point  of  importance. 

The  Aberdeen-Angus  is  a  Scotch  breed  of  cattle  that  was 
first  developed  in  and  about  the  county  of  Aberdeen,  in 
northeast  Scot- 
land. This  sec- 
tion is  about  a 
thousand  miles 
north  of  the  lati- 
tude of  Chicago. 
The  winter  cli- 
mate of  this  re- 
gion is  rather  se- 
vere, and  the  soil 
is  not  the  best, 
though  the  graz- 
ing is  good.  Some 
think  these  ani- 
mals are  de- 
scended from 
the  Wild  White  Cattle.  It  is  a  hornless  breed.  They 
first  became  celebrated  through  Hugh  Watson,  a  tenant 
farmer  at  Keillor.  He  loved  his  cattle  and  studied  carefully 
the  improvement  of  his  herd.  As  a  result  he  produced  more 
early-maturing,  heavier-fleshed,  and  more  compact  cattle 
than  had  before  been  known  in  Scotland.  He  had  a  cow 
named  "Old  Grannie"  that  lived  to  be  36  years  old,  and  was 
the  mother  of  25  calves,  a  wonderful  record  for  a  cow  of  any 
breed.  William  McCombie  was  another  famous  breeder  of 


Figure  S3.— A  Polled  Hereford  bull.    Photograph  by  the 
author 


228 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM   AXIMALS 


Aberdeen-Angus  cattle.  He  improved  on  the  work  of  Wat- 
son, and  his  cattle  became  celebrated  for  the  prizes  they 
won  in  the  shows  of  Scotland  and  France.  Sir  George 
McPherson  Grant,  who  died  in  1907,  was  the  most  noted 
breeder  of  recent  days,  and  from  his  herd  came  some  of  the 
greatest  cattle  of  the  breed. 

The  first  Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  were  imported  to  Amer- 
ica in  1873,  by  George  Grant,  of  Kansas.  Later  in  the 
seventies  a  few  head  were  taken  to  Canada,  New  York, 


Figure  84. — Aberdeen-Angus  bull,   Balatum,  owned  by  J.  S.  Caldwell  &  Son 
of  Ohio.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

Illinois,  and  other  states  of  the  central  West.  It  is  only  in 
rather  recent  years  that  these  cattle  have  become  popular  in 
America  and  recognized  as  one  of  the  really  great  breeds. 
The  characteristics  of  Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  are  espe- 
cially marked  in  color,  head  character,  and  quality  of  flesh. 
The  standard  color  is  a  hard,  clear  black,  although  at  rare 
intervals  red  will  occur.  This  red  is  inherited  from  past 
generations,  for  at  one  time  there  were  many  reds,  browns, 
and  brindles  among  the  cattle  of  Aberdeen.  The  head  is 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


229 


polled,  although  abortive  horns,  or  scurs,  occasionally  develop. 
Even  though  coming  from  pure-bred  sire  and  dam,  the  red 
color  or  scurs  prohibit  registering  in  the  books  of  the  Amer- 
ican Aberdeen-Angus  Cattle  Breeders'  Association.  In  size, 
cattle  of  this  breed  are  essentially  in  the  same  class  as  the 
Shorthorn  and  Hereford,  although  they  in  fact  weigh  slightly 
less  under  average  conditions.  Aged  bulls  will  weigh  about 
2,000  pounds,  and  cows  around  1,400,  although  it  is  claimed 
that  some  bulls  of  the  breed  have  weighed  up  to  3,000  pounds, 
this  weight  being  credited  to  the  noted  bull  Justice. 


Figure  85. — Aberdeen-Angus  cow,  Queen  Milly  of  Sun  Dance  3d,  owned  by 
C.  D.  and  E.  F.  Caldwell  of  Missouri.     Photograph  from  the  owners. 

In  body  conformation  the  Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  are 
inclined  to  be  a  trifle  prominent  in  the  shoulder,  their 
backs  are  only  moderately  wide,  the  loin  being  rounding 
rather  than  flat  like  the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford.  There  is 
a  tendency  towards  a  sag  in  the  back,  the  hind  quarters  are 
round  and  full,  though  the  tail-head  is  often  somewhat 
prominent,  due  to  a  falling  away  on  each  side  of  the  rump. 


230 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


These  cattle  stand  on  short  legs,  and  are  very  compact. 
They  graze  well,  mature  early,  fatten  smoothly,  produce 
meat  of  the  choicest  grade,  and  kill  out  with  the  least  waste. 
The  Aberdeen-Angus  is  a  great  favorite  with  the  butchers 
on  account  of  the  smoothness  of  carcass  and  small  per  cent 
of  waste  in  dressing.  In  the  fat  stock  shows  in  recent  years, 
in  America  and  England,  no  other  breed  has  won  so  many 
grand  championships.  In  slaughter  tests  the  bullocks  have 
dressed  out  72  per  cent  carcass  to  offal,  which  is  a  very  high 
record.  Many  of  the  cows  are  good  milkers,  and  produce 

an  excellent 
grade  of  milk. 
In  disposition 
the  Aberdeen- 
Angus  are  nota- 
bly nervous, 
more  resembling 
the  Hereford 
than  the  Short- 
horn in  this  re- 
spect. 

These  cattle 
are  growing 
much  in  popular- 
ity. With  Iowa 
as  the  great  breeding  center,  many  fine  herds  are  found  in 
the  corn-belt  states.  There  are  some  excellent  herds  in  the 
southern  states,  where  the  breed  has  comparatively  recently 
obtained  a  foothold.  Among  the  more  popular  families  of 
Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  are  the  Erica,  Queen  Mother,  Pride, 
and  Blackbird.  During  recent  years  very  high  prices  have 
been  paid  for  these  cattle,  the  highest  being  for  the  bull 
Blackcap  Bertram  sold  in  1919  for  $45,000.  Some  of  the 
bulls  have  sold  for  over  $10,000  each,  while  this  sum  repre- 
sents the  highest  price  paid  for  a  cow,  being  paid  in  1919  for 


Figure  86. — Fyyie  Knight  2d.  Grand  champion  steer, 
1918  International  Live  Stock  Show.  Shown  by  Purdue 
University,  Indiana.  Photograph  from  American 
Aberdeen-Angus  Association. 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


231 


Blackcap   McHenry    151st.     Aberdeen-Angus   show   steers 
topped   the    market  many   times,   the   highest   price   ever 
known,  $2.50  per  pound  live  weight,  being  paid  for  the  grand 
champion  steer  Fyvie  Knight  2nd,   exhibited  by  Purdue 
University  at  the  1918  International  Live  Stock  Exposition. 
The  Galloway  is  a  beef  breed  that  originated  in  south- 
west Scotland  in  what  is  known  as  the  Galloway  country. 
It  is  a  hilly  region,  with  plenty  of  grass,  and  has  a  somewhat 
cool  and  rather  moist  climate.     These  cattle  have  been  bred 
here  for  centuries.     They  are  black,  though  other  colors 
formerly  occurred,  are  polled,  have  long,  shaggy  coats  of 
curly  hair,  and  are  hardy 
and    rather   wild   by 
nature.      They  are   not 
quite  as  large  nor  so  com- 
pact   of    body    as    the 
Aberdeen-Angus,  and  do 
not  fatten  so  easily.  They 
produce     a    very    high 
grade    of    beef,    fine   of 
grain  and  inclined  to  be 
free  from  extra  fat,  such 
as  is  often  found  in  high- 
ly    fed    Shorthorns    or 
Herefords.     The   Gallo- 
way is  a  breed  that  can  endure  severe  winter  conditions  better 
than  most  others,  on  account  of  the  protection  of  a  thick  hide 
and  a  long,  thick,  silky  coat  of  hair.    Very  beautiful  robes  are 
made  from  Galloway  hides  with  the   winter  coat  of  hair. 
This  breed  was  first  brought  to  America  about  1850,  or 
perhaps  some  years  before.     It  is  not  popular  and  the  herds 
are  rather  scattered,  more  being  in  the  northwestern  states 
and  in  Canada  than  elsewhere.     The  exhibit  of  the  breed  at 
the  fat-stock  shows  and  fairs  is  usually  small  compared  with 
the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and  Aberdeen-Angus. 


Figure  87. — A  Galloway  steer. 
by  the  author 


Photograph 


232  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

IMPORTANT  POINTS  TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT 
THE  BEEF  BREEDS 

1.  The  relationship  of  Wild  White  Cattle  to  improved  breeds  of 

to-day. 

2.  The  difference  between  Teeswater  and  Holderness  cattle. 

3.  The  parts  played  by  the  Collings,  Bates,  Booths,  and  Cruickshank. 

(a)  When  and  where  did  they  live? 

(b)  What  did  they  do? 

(c)  What  families  did  they  produce? 

4.  A  few  marked  characteristics  of  the  Shorthorn. 

5.  Striking  points  of  identity  of  the  Hereford. 

6.  Why  the  Hereford  is  a  superior  breed  for  the  range. 

7.  What  Hugh  Watson  and  William  McCombie  did  for  the  Aberdeen- 

Angus. 

8.  How  the  Aberdeen-Angus  passes  the  killing  test. 

9.  The  conditions  under  which  the  Galloway  originated. 

10.  The  kind  of  coat  worn  by  the  Galloway. 

ASSUME  YOURSELF  TO  BE  A  CENSUS  TAKER  AND 

11.  Find  out  if  any  pure-bred  herds,  and  what  kind,  occur  in  your 

neighborhood  or  township. 

12.  Make  a  map  and  locate  the  herds  upon  it. 

13.  Ascertain  what  kinds  of   pure-bred  beef  bulls  are  used  in  grade 

herds,  and  why? 

14.  Report  on  what  you  think  the  best  pure-bred  beef  herd  in  the 

county,  and  your  reason  why? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 

In  judging  beef  cattle,  we  have  different  classes  and  con- 
ditions of  animals.  Examples  of  these  may  be  found  in 
mature  bulls  or  cows,  and  young  stock  in  breeding  herds; 
and  in  fat  cattle  ready  for  the  butcher,  or  in  feeders  that 
are  not  yet  in  condition  for  killing.  If  of  about  the  same 
age  and  condition  of  flesh,  however,  we  shall  find  that  they 


Figure  88. — Victor,  Grand  champion  steer  at  the  1911  International  Live 
Stock  Exposition.  Fed  and  shown  by  Iowa  State  College.  Photograph 
from  The  Farmer. 

have  much  in  common  in  type  and  form.  In  a  study  of 
beef  cattle  through  the  use  of  the  score  card  and  the  scale  of 
points,  it  is  customary  for  classroom  work  to  make  use  of  as 
good  examples  of  such  animals  as  are  obtainable,  judging 
them  as  fat  cattle.  The  following  scale  of  points  is  espe- 
cially arranged  for  the  scoring  of  fat  cattle,  and  its  use  is 
discussed  herewith. 

233 


234  A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

A  SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  CATTLE 

Points  of       Score  of 
Scale  of  Points  perfect  score   cattle  judge 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  38  Points. 

Weight,  score  according  to  age.    At  12  months 

850  Ibs.,  at  24  months  1,250  Ibs.,  at  30  months 

1,500  Ibs 8         

Form,  broad,  deep,  compact,  low  set,  top  and 

underline  straight 10         

Quality,  fine  bone,  mellow  elastic  hide,  soft  and 

silky  hair 10         

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  smooth,  firm 

flesh,  the  cod  and  flank  indicating  finish 10         

HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points. 

Muzzle,  broad,  mouth  large,  nostrils  large 1         

Eyes,  large  and  bright,  with  placid  expression 1          

Face,  short,  wide,  slightly  dished;  cheeks  fleshy; 

jaw  strong 1          

Forehead,  broad,  full 1         

Ears,  medium  size,  not  coarse,  well  set 1         

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  clean,  blending  well 

with  shoulders 2         

FORE  QUARTERS,  9  Points. 

Shoulder  vein,  full  and  smooth 2         

Shoulders,  well  set,  compact  on  top,  smoothly 

covered  with  flesh 3         

Breast,  wide  and  full,  brisket  extending  forward, 

with  little  dewlap 2         

Legs,  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine,  smooth; 

toes  pointing  directly  forward 2         

BODY,  31  Points. 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  girth  large,  crops  full 5         

Back,  broad,  level,  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed ....   8         

Loin,  broad,  thick 8         

Ribs,  long,  well  arched,  thickly  and  smoothly 

fleshed 8         

Flanks,  deep,  full,  underline  straight  from  front 

to  rear 2         

HIND  QUARTERS,  15  Points. 

Hips,  smoothly  covered,  not  wide  apart,  nor 

prominent 1         

Rump,  long,  wide,  level,  free  of  patchiness, 

tail  head  smooth 4         

Thighs,  thick,  broad,  deep,  full 4         

Twist,  deep,  full 4 

Legs,  well  placed,  short;  hocks  straight;  shank 

fine  and  smooth;  toes  pointing  straight  forward ...   2         


Total..  ..100 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


235 


In  judging  fat  cattle,  either  by  the  score  card  or  other- 
wise, the  general  appearance  should  be  first  considered.  As 
one  walks  about  the  animal,  or  as  it  may  be  observed  in 
parade,  the  size  is  compared  with  what  one  thinks  it  should 
be  for  its  age  requirements,  while  special  note  is  also  taken 
as  to  the  general  form,  quality,  and  condition.  The  subject 
of  weight  is  a  comparative  one,  but  in  judging  it  is  customary 
to  discriminate  against  the  animal  that  is  too  small  for  its 
age  or  that  shows  evidence  of  being  naturally  undersized. 


Figure  89. — The  points  9f  a   beef  animal.     Reproduced  from  "Judging  Farm 
Animals,"   by  the  author. 

The  form  of  the  beef  animal,  as  indicated  by  the  score 
card,  should  show  breadth,  depth,  and  compactness.  Then, 
if  this  includes  an  excellent  degree  of  fatness  over  the  body, 
known  as  condition,  the  butcher  will  obtain  from  such  a 
carcass  the  greatest  percentage  of  the  most  valuable  cuts. 
Some  writers  on  live  stock  have  compared  the  body  of  fat 
cattle  to  a  rectangle,  when  viewed  from  one  side.  The  body 
of  the  animal,  excepting  the  head,  neck,  and  legs,  would 
very  well  fill  a  rectangular  form.  Viewed  from  either  the 


236 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


front  or  the  rear,  the  body  should  fill  a  square.  Long  ago 
English  writers  made  use  of  this  illustration  of  correct  beef- 
cattle  form,  and  judges  of  to-day  very  generally  approve  of 
the  same  description. 

If  we  should  examine  a  body  that  is  usually  de- 
scribed as  "blocky",  it  would  be  noticed  that  those  parts  con- 
taining the  highest-priced  meats  are  well  developed.  The 


Variation  in  Retail  Prices  for  Different  Cuts  of  Beef 


10 


Pounds       53      47 
Percent      I  _  ,   7  ,      R  4 
TotalwgtC86  7'6     * 


Figure  90. — Cuts  of  beef  and  their  relative  values  in  1919. 
Swift  &  Company. 


By  courtesy  of 


part  from  the  hips  forward  to  the  last  rib  comprises  the  loin. 
The  highest-priced  meat  is  found  here,  and  makes  up  about 
16  per  cent  of  the  carcass.  The  section  of  the  back  and  ribs 
from  the  loin  up  to  the  sixth  rib,  known  as  the  rib  or  prime- 
of-rib  cut,  makes  up  about  9  per  cent  of  the  carcass,  and  is 
worth  several  cents  less  a  pound  than  the  loin.  The  part  of 
the  back  at  the  shoulders,  the  chuck,  makes  up  about  21  per 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE  237 

cent  of  the  carcass,  and  is  still  cheaper  than  the  prime-of- 
ribs.  If  we  view  the  steer  from  behind,  the  rump  and 
quarters  fill  out  into  one  of  the  heaviest  and  meatiest  parts, 
comprising  16  per  cent  of  the  carcass,  and  ranking  third  in 
value  of  the  different  cuts. 

Thus  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  the  more  completely 
the  frame  of  the  animal  is  developed  in  these  parts  and 
covered  with  a  thick,  smooth,  uniform  layer  of  good 
meat,  the  greater  its  value  will  be  for  beef.  The  head 


Figure  91. — Judging  beef  cattle.     Handling  the  hide  to  study  quality  and 
thickness.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

neck,  belly,  and  legs  are  classed  as  cheap  meat,  and,  there- 
fore, these  parts  need  not  be  heavily  developed.  The  ani- 
mal with  big  paunch  and  long  leg  is  discriminated  against 
by  buyers,  who  realize  that  in  killing  considerable  waste  is 
sure  to  result.  High-class  fat  cattle  will  kill  out  as  much  as 
70  per  cent,  or  even  more,  of  carcass  to  offal,  while  a  com- 
mon or  inferior  animal  of  leggy  conformation  will  dress 
around  50  per  cent.  Thus  the  butcher  who  caters  to  a 
discriminating  trade  usually  prefers  to  buy  the  better  class 
of  animals,  which  dress  out  60  per  cent  or  more. 


238 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  indications  of  quality  in  beef  cattle  are  fineness  of 
bone;  a  silky,  heavy  coat  of  hair;  a  mellow,  elastic  skin; 
and  refinement,  as  seen  in  the  head  in  particular,  and  in  the 
entire  form  in  general.  Large  ears,  heavy  bones  and  joints, 
a  hard  thick  skin,  and  coarse  wiry  hair  are  all  evidences  of  a 
poor  digestive  capacity  and  lack  of  quality.  In  the  case  of 
beef  cattle,  smoothness  and  uniformity  of  covering  are  also 
indications  of  quality.  In  the  carcass,  fineness  of  grain  of 


Figure  92. — Judging  beef  cattle.     Feeling  for  thickness  of  flank.     Photograph 
by  the  author. 

flesh  and  a  good  distribution  of  fat  particles  among  the  fibers 
are  measures  of  the  quality  of  the  meat.  If  the  ribs  and 
back  have  lumps  or  rolls  of  fat,  and  the  rump  is  also  rough, 
then  the  quality  of  carcass  will  be  of  inferior  grade.  Such 
a  condition  should  be  easily  observable. 

The  condition  of  a  beef  animal  refers  to  the  covering  of 
flesh  or  degree  of  fatness.  Thin  animals  are  spoken  of  as 
in  thin  condition,  while  fat  ones  are  in  fat  condition.  The 
condition  is  determined  mainly  by  the  eye  of  the  judge. 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


239 


The  well-fattened  animal  shows  plumpness  of  body.  His 
more  exposed  portions,  like  the  hips  and  shoulder  points, 
are  covered  with  flesh.  When  a  fat  steer  moves,  the  flesh 
about  his  breast  and  in  his  flanks  shows  more  movement 
than  is  seen  in  a  thin-fleshed  animal.  The  hand  may  also 
assist  the  eye  in  inspecting  fat  cattle.  When  using  the  hand, 
the  ends  of  the  fingers  are  kept  together,  and  are  pressed 
along  the  middle  of  the  back  and  on  the  sides  over  the  ribs. 


Figure  93. — Judging  beef  cattle.      Feeling  for  depth  of  covering  of  the  back. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  thickness  and  firmness  of  covering  is  easily  determined 
by  the  touch.  A  mellow,  yet  firm  resistance  to  the  hand 
pressure  should  be  felt.  A  common  custom  among  buyers 
of  fat  cattle  is  also  to  feel  the  covering  of  the  end  of  the 
rump  and  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  to  grasp  in  the 
hand  the  hind  flank,  which  should  be  low  and  full  in  a  well- 
finished  beast.  A  thin,  hard  covering  at  these  points  shows 
that  the  animal  lacks  in  condition. 

After  giving  the  necessary  consideration  to  general  ap- 
pearances, our  attention  will  next  be  given  to  the  detailed 


240 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


features  of  conformation.  Beginning  with  the  head,  we 
seek  for  evidences  of  the  good  feeder  and  a  pleasant  dis- 
position. A  broad  muzzle,  with  shortness  from  this  point 
to  the  eyes,  usually  indicates  constitution  and  feeding  capac- 
ity. A  clear,  prominent  eye  denotes  a  pleasant  disposi- 
tion; and  the  broad,  full  forehead,  a  comparatively  high  de- 
gree of  intelligence.  The  eye  is  an  important  guide  to  the 
disposition,  and  should  be  carefully  considered.  The  ears 

are  a  guide  to  quality; 
for,  if  large  and  thick 
and  heavy  at  the  base, 
they  indicate  coarseness. 
The  reason  for  desiring 
a  short  neck  is  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  cheap 
meat.  The  short,  thick 
neck  is  also  an  evidence 
of  constitutional  vigor, 
for  it  is  connected  with 
a  wide,  full  breast.  Back 
of  this  should  be  a  ca- 
pacious chest,  with  am- 
ple room  for  the  vital 
organs.  A  strong,  vigor- 
ous constitution  is  very 
important  with  all  kinds 
of  stock.  One  must  see  the  character  of  neck  from  the 
side  and  top,  and  may  easily  note  the  way  it  joins  both 
head  and  shoulders.  From  the  side,  one  notes  the 
placing  of  shoulders,  their  slope  and  smoothness  of  covering, 
the  blending  of  the  neck  with  the  shoulder  at  the  so-called 
" shoulder  vein,"  and  the  spread  between  the  blades  at  the 
top.  The  wide-spread  shoulder  top  is  not  desired,  because 
it  means  lack  of  covering  of  flesh  and  indicates  a  narrow  floor 
of  the  chest.  From  in  front,  the  fullness  of  breast,  the  car- 


Figure  94. — Judging  beef  cattle.  Inspecting 
the  rump  and  feeling  for  condition. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


241 


riage  of  brisket,  and  length  of  leg  are  easily  seen.  The 
brisket,  being  the  portion  that  extends  forward  between  the 
fore  legs,  is  the  sternum  proper,  and  with  the  best  of  fat 
cattle  is  usually  thick  and  prominent.  Beginning  at  the 
brisket,  extending  upward  from  the  front  of  the  neck,  is  a 
thin  fold  of  skin  known  as  the  dewlap,  which  is  undesirable 
to  have  in  any  great  amount.  As  a  rule,  the  dewlap  is  not 
prominent  on  beef  cattle,  being  more  in  evidence  on  lighter- 


Figure  95. — Judging  beef  cattle.     Feeling  covering  at  the  shoulder.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

fleshed  stock,  and  in  certain  breeds.  The  front  legs  should 
be  short,  and  the  feet  stand  squarely  on  the  ground,  the 
toes  pointing  straight  ahead.  The  bone  just  below  the  knee, 
known  as  the  shank,  which  is  termed  the  cannon  bone  with 
the  horse,  should  be  reasonably  fine  and  short,  an  important 
indication  of  quality.  When  the  front  legs  stand  well  apart, 
we  usually  find  plenty  of  chest  capacity.  The  body  of  the 
beef  animal  requires  large  size  and  capacity,  the  wide  back 
giving  room  for  the  valuable  cuts  already  described.  Full- 


242 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ness  and  depth  of  body  also  go  with  the  digestive  capacity 
sought  for  in  a  good  feeder.  A  study  of  the  body  capacity 
and  value  should  be  made  from  one  side  and  from  above  the 
animal,  to  observe  the  thickness  and  spring  of  rib.  Emphasis 
may  be  placed  on  this  last  feature,  for  a  well-sprung,  long 
rib  means  thickness  and  depth  of  body.  Shortness  of  coup- 
ling from  the  hip  to  the  nearest  rib  is  also  important,  if  we 
are  to  have  compactness  of  form.  An  examination  of  the 
hind  quarter  is  made  from  a  point  opposite  the  thigh,  and 
from  directly  behind.  Good  length  from  the  hips  to  the 

end  of  the  body  near 
the  tail,  to  what  are 
called  the  pin-bones,  is 
important;  for  here  we 
find  large,  heavy  muscles 
of  very  good  quality  for 
meat.  The  longer,  broad- 
er, and  fuller  this  part, 
the  more  flesh  one 
should  expect  to  find. 
The  thighs,  which  extend 
to  the  hocks,  should  show 
length  and  thickness. 
From  a  side  view,  the 
distance  from  the  point 
of  hip  to  the  hock  should  be  great,  with  the  hind  flank  ap- 
pearing low  down.  From  the  rear,  the  thighs  should  appear 
thick  and  straight  of  edge  on  the  outer  part,  with  the  space 
between  filled  in  full  and  low.  Between,  where  the  thick 
lower  part  of  the  upper  thigh  meets  the  lower  thigh,  is  lo- 
cated the  twist.  On  high-class  fat  cattle,  the  twist  has  a 
very  short,  wide  curve.  The  poorer  the  hind  quarter  from 
a  beef  standpoint,  the  less  noticeable  the  twist.  The  hind 
legs,  from  behind,  should  appear  straight,  with  the  points 
of  the  hocks  well  separated  and  the  toes  directed  straight 


Figure  96. — Roan  James,  reserve  grand  cham- 
pion steer,  1910,  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition.  Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


243 


ahead.  If  the  hocks  touch  at  the  points  and  the  toes  turn 
out,  the  animal  is  called  "cow  hocked."  This  bad  position 
throws  the  thighs  close  together  and  prevents  the  desired 
thickness.  It  is  also  important  that  the  shank  bones,  from 
a  side  view,  stand  nearly  vertical,  thereby  supporting  the 
parts  above  so  as  to  provide  the  best  conformation. 

In  judging  breeding  beef  cattle,  certain  essentials  should 
be  kept  in  mind.  Masculine  character  of  head  and  neck  are 
important  with  the  males,  and  feminine  features  with  the 


Figure  97. — Oakdale  Pride  2nd,  a  masculine  type  of  calf,  owned  by 
F.  R.  Edwards.     Photograph  by  Hildebrand. 

females.  The  head  of  the  bull  is  usually  large,  is  rougher- 
haired  at  the  forehead  and  poll,  and  carries  a  strong  horn, 
if  of  the  horned  sort.  The  neck  is  also  thicker  and  more 
crested  than  with  the  steer,  and  the  shoulders  usually  are 
somewhat  prominent,  though  not  necessarily  so.  The  cows 
have  refined  heads,  with  light  horns,  and  the  neck  is  of  but 
medium  thickness  and  length.  The  udder,  also,  should  show 
plenty  of  capacity.  In  general  form  of  body,  breeding  cattle 
should  possess  the  important  features  already  described,  but 
should  lack  in  flesh  as  compared  with  fat  stock. 


244  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

IN  JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 

1.  What  three  features  are  given  most  credit  in  the  scale  of  points? 

What  six  the  least? 

2.  Describe  the  generally  approved  form. 

3.  What  is  the  relationship  of  paunch  and  leg  to  killing  value? 

4.  What  is  condition,  and  how  is  it  determined? 

5.  Why  is  a  short  neck  'desired? 

6.  How  prominent  is  the  dewlap  on  beef  cattle? 

7.  What  is  the  significance  of  shortness  of  coupling? 

8.  Why  are  "cow  hocks"  objectionable? 

9.  Wherein  does  the  head  of  the  bull  differ  from  that  of  the  cow? 

INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  DO 

10.  Score  one  beef  animal  or  more  on  the  home  farm. 

11.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  two  or  more  animals  without  the  use 

of  the  score  card. 

12.  Organize  a  beef-cattle  judging  contest  between  two  teams. 

13.  If  in  a  beef  calf  club,  study  the  conformation  of  the  calves  and 

note  their  comparative  differences. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 

In  the  feeding  of  beef  cattle  we  have  two  distinct  groups 
of  animals,  one  used  in  the  breeding  herd,  and  the  other  to 
be  fattened  for  the  butcher.  While  the  final  end  of  all  meat- 
producing  animals  is  killing  for  human  consumption,  those 
used  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  of  far  greater  value 
than  for  meat  alone.  Some  breeding  cattle  have  proven 
themselves  of  so  great  value,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
estimate  their  real  worth  to  the  breeds  and  herds  they  rep- 
resent. One  could  have  put  a  butcher's  value  on  the  great 
Shorthorn  bull  Avondale  or  the  Hereford  bull  Perfection 
Fairfax,  but  their  real  value  lies  in  what  they  have  done 
in  the  improvement  of  Shorthorn  and  Hereford  cattle. 

The  feeding  standards  for  beef  cattle  will  apply  satis- 
factorily to  either  breeding  or  fattening  cattle.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  essential  requirements,  as  based  on  the 

modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standard.* 

A  s  based  on  actual  live  weight 


Live  weight. 
Growing,  fattening  steers 

150  pounds 
250 
400 
500 
700 
900 
1000 

Fattening  2-yr.  old  steers, 
full  feed. 
First  50-60  days  
Second  50-60  "  
Third  50-60  "  
Ox  at  rest  in  stall  
Wintering  cow  in  calf  .  .  . 

Digestible          Total 
Dry  matter      crude           digestible 
protein         nutrients 
3.11  Ibs.    0.49  Ibs.        2.58  Ibs. 
6.40           0.74  '            4.42    ' 
9.72           0.87  '            6.32    < 
11.95            1.04  '            7.88    ' 
15.83            1.41   '          10.35   * 
18.17            1.78     '        12.22    ' 
19.66           1.80     '        13.51    ' 
Per  day  per  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight. 
Digestible         Total 
Dry  matter       crude         digestible 
protein         nutrients 
.22-25  Ibs.    2.0-2.3  Ibs.  18.0-20.0 
.21-24  "       1.9-2.3  "      17.0-19.5 
.18-22  "       1.8-2.1  "      16.0-18.5 
.13-21   "       0.6-0.8  "        8.4-10.4 
.14-25  "      0.7-0.9  "        9.0-12.0 

Nutritive 
ratio 
1:4.2 
1:4.9 
1:6.2 
1:6.5 
1:6.4 
1:5.8 
1:6.5 

Nutritive 
ratio 
1:7.0-7.8 
1:7.0-7.8 
1:7.0-7.8 
1:10.0-16.0 
1:10.0-15.0 

*Quoted  from  Feeds  and  Feeding.    Henry  and  Morrison,  1917. 

245 


246  A    STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

This  table  brings  out  several  facts  of  interest.  As  we 
might  suppose,  with  increase  of  weight  in  growing  fatten- 
ing cattle  comes  an  increased  demand  for  nutrients,  with  the 
nutritive  ratio  very  slightly  widening  from  400  to  1,000 
pounds.  On  the  basis  of  1 ,000  pounds  weight,  however,  there 
is  a  steady  decrease  in  requirements  of  nutrients.  In  the 
case  of  the  two-year-old  fattening  steer  from  the  first  to 
the  third  fattening  periods,  we  note  also  a  marked  decrease 
in  amounts  of  dry  matter,  protein,  and  total  nutrients  neces- 
sary, but  with  a  constant  nutritive  ratio.  The  ox  at  rest 
in  a  stall  or  the  breeding  cow  going  through  the  winter  in 
calf  calls  for  a  wide  nutritive  ratio  and  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  protein  and  total  nutrients. 

The  feeding  of  breeding  beef  cows  is  a  comparatively 
simple  matter.  They  should  be  kept  in  moderate  flesh,  but 
not  allowed  to  become  fat.  Economical  management  re- 
quires the  extensive  use  of  roughage,  pasture,  forage  crops 
and  silage,  with  a  light  feed  of  grain  except  when  nursing  a 
good-sized,  vigorous  calf.  If  one  has  plenty  of  legume 
roughage,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover,  it  will  be  much  relished, 
and  with  a  very  small  grain  portion  will  furnish  most  desir- 
able feed.  At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  ten  cows  were 
fed  140  days  during  the  winter  on  a  daily  ration  of  about  8 
pounds  of  shock  corn,  (containing  about  50  per  cent  ears), 
about  11  pounds  of  oat  straw,  and  3J/2  pounds  of  clover  hay, 
and  gained  106  pounds  per  head.  At  the  Pennsylvania  sta- 
tion extensive  experiments  on  the  use  of  corn  silage  for  beef 
cattle  has  shown  that  breeding  beef  cows  can  be  maintained 
in  good  condition  on  a  ration  of  silage  to  suit  the  appetite, 
with  1  pound  of  cottonseed  meal  per  day.  At  the  Wyoming 
station  breeding  cows  showed  an  average  gain  per  week  of 
2j/£  pounds  when  fed  140  days  on  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay 
and  15  pounds  of  oats  and  pea  silage,  and  no  grain.  When 
on  good  pasture  grain  need  not  be  fed  cows,  except  in  hot 
weather.  When  flies  are  biting  hard,  some  grain  may  be 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  217 

profitably  used  to  keep  cows  in  proper  condition,  especially 
if  nursing  calves.  During  the  growing  season,  when  pas- 
ture is  not  abundant,  it  will  pay  to  furnish  the  cows  with 
green  corn  fodder,  sorghum  or  any  of  the  legumes  palatable 
to  cattle. 

The  beef  bull,  like  the  breeding  cow,  needs  to  be  kept 
in  good  vigorous  condition,  but  not  fat.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  he  is  not  overfed;  for,  with  some  owners, 
lack  of  exercise  and  too  much  feed  make  the  bull  too  fat 
and  injures  his  value  for  breeding  service.  He  should  receive 
but  a  light  amount  of  fattening  food,  relying  mostly  on 
roughages  and  protein  concentrates.  The  beef  bull  is  better 
off  for  having  exercise,  and  should  be  given  work,  if  possible, 
as  is  so  commonly  done  in  continental  Europe. 

The  feeding  of  beef  calves.  For  the  first  four  months, 
and  even  more,  the  calf  nurses  its  mother  and  receives  such 
other  feed  as  local  conditions  permit.  On  the  range  milk 
and  grass  make  up  the  daily  diet  of  the  calf.  Where  farm- 
ing is  on  smaller  areas,  the  calves  may  or  may  not  run  with 
the  cows.  Very  young  calves,  however,  usually  do,  but  in 
the  hot  days  it  is  better  to  keep  them  in  the  darkened  stable 
during  the  day,  protected,  if  possible,  from  flies,  allowing 
them  to  nurse  the  dams  morning  and  night.  In  some  beef 
herds,  the  calf  is  taken  from  the  cow  in  three  or  four  days, 
and  given  milk  in  a  pail.  Mr.  J.  Dean  Willis,  one  of  the 
most  noted  Shorthorn  breeders  in  England,  raises  his  calves 
on  milk  in  the  pail.  The  new  milk  may  be  given  until  the 
calf  is  about  three  or  four  weeks  old,  when  skim  milk  may 
gradually  replace  the  new  milk  substituting  about  a  pound 
a  day  of  the  skim  for  the  other,  until  nothing  but  skim  milk 
is  fed.  It  is  important  that  this  milk  be  sweet,  and  per- 
fectly clean,  and  fed  at  blood  temperature  in  absolutely 
clean  buckets.  A  tablespoonful  of  dried  blood  in  the  bucket 
of  milk  once  a  day  will  assist  in  keeping  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  calf  in  healthy  condition,  preventing  scours. 


248  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

One  must  guard  against  overfeeding.  Ten  or  12  pounds 
a  day  of  milk  at  first,  divided  into  three  feeds  for  the  first 
week  or  two,  then  gradually  increasing,  so  that  at  six  or 
eight  weeks  of  age  some  12  to  15  pounds  of  skim  milk  are 
fed,  and  this  with  age  increased  to  18  to  20  pounds  a  day, 
for  vigorous,  well-grown  calves.  Skim-milk  calves,  which 
should  be  weaned  at  four  to  six  months  old,  grow  strong 
frames,  and  produce  growth  more  cheaply  than  with  whole 
milk.  Calves  should  be  given  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  or 
some  other  sweet  hay  to  nibble  at,  and  be  taught  to  eat 
grain.  Shelled  corn  is  relished  by  the  young  calf,  and  fits 
well  into  a  skim-milk  diet.  At  first  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 


Figure  98. — Feeding  beef  calves. 

corn  meal,  ground  oats,  and  bran  should  be  fed,  after  giving 
the  milk.  This  mixture  may  later  be  changed  to  shelled  corn 
and  whole  oats,  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter, 
when  the  appetite  for  grain  is  well  established.  Thriving 
calves  should  gain  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  daily. 
Growing  breeding  cattle  should  be  brought  up  to  mature 
form  with  a  strong  and  well-rounded-out  frame.  As  a  rule, 
calves  dropped  in  early  spring  go  through  the  following 
winter  on  a  ration  of  some  good  roughage,  preferably  a 


FEEDING   BEEF  CATTLE  249 

legume,  and  silage,  with  a  comparatively  small  grain  feed. 
It  is  important  that  the  growth  be  constant  during  the  win- 
ter, so  that  as  a  yearling  the  next  spring  it  will  go  on  grass 
in  right  condition.  Over  much  of  the  country,  if  pastures 
hold  out  well,  the  yearlings  get  no  grain,  depending  entirely 
on  grass.  In  case  of  dry  weather  and  short  grass,  however, 
it  will  pay  to  give  some  extra  feed.  Green  corn  or  silage 
are  invaluable  at  this  time.  In  those  sections  where  good 
blue-grass  pastures  prevail,  cattle  will  do  well,  even  though 
the  grass  lose  much  of  its  succulence.  The  second  winter 
much  the  same  treatment  may  be  followed,  with  a  larger 
feed  of  silage,  but  not  much  increase  in  grain.  It  is  desir- 
able to  bring  the  breeding  heifers  up  to  calving  as  econom- 
ically as  is  consistent  with  satisfactory  growth.  One  should 
always  keep  in  mind  that  the  requirements  for  growth  are 
protein  foods,  with  suitable  minerals  therein,  of  which  alfalfa, 
the  clovers,  and  cowpeas  are  good  examples. 

The  feeding  of  fattening  cattle  calls  for  other  treatment 
than  that  used  for  the  breeding  herd.  We  have  another 
purpose  in  preparing  cattle  for  the  butcher,  hence  a  different 
combination  of  foods  is  needed.  In  the  fattening  of  cattle 
we  have  several  conditions  under  which  feeders  operate, 
namely,  producing  " baby' '  beef,  summer  feeding,  fattening 
yearlings  and  two-year-olds,  and  preparing  short-fed  cattle. 
Each  of  these  methods  is  herewith  briefly  considered. 

"Baby"  beef  represents  a  class  of  cattle  weighing  from 
800  to  1,200  pounds  at  12  to  20  months  of  age,  and  are  of 
superior  beef  blood,  conformation,  quality,  and  finish.  To 
be  finished  as  baby  beef,  these  cattle  must  have  been  well 
fed  from  the  start,  and  maintained  their  calf  fat  from  the 
milk-diet  period.  In  beef  of  this  sort,  it  is  necessary  to  feed 
a  larger  proportion  of  concentrates  and  a  smaller  amount  of 
roughage  than  is  fed  to  older  fattening  cattle.  If  one  is  to 
grow  baby  beef,  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  calves  come  in 
the  early  spring.  Begin  grain  feeding  early,  before  weaning, 


250  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

after  which  in  fall  put  them  on  full  feed,  which  should  con- 
tinue until  the  calves  reach  the  desired  condition  and  weight. 
Mr.  E.  S.  Bayard  recommends*  10  pounds  of  corn  silage 
and  4  or  5  pounds  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  daily,  along  with 
a  mixture  of  6  parts  shelled  corn  and  1  part  of  cottonseed 
meal,  fed  on  the  basis  of  2  pounds  for  each  100  pounds  of  live 
weight.  These  spring  calves  should  be  ready  for  market 
by  August  of  the  next  year.  Fall  calves  should  be  carried 
through  the  winter  in  good  condition,  be  turned  on  grass 
early  in  spring,  and  be  fed  during  summer  all  the  hay  and 
grain  they  will  eat,  feeding  8  parts  of  corn  to  1  part  of 
cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal.  Choice  western  calves,  of 
superior  beef  breeding  and  condition,  dropped  in  the  spring, 


Figure  99. — Making  beef  in  comfortable  quarters  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

are  often  bought  in  the  fall,  at  weights  around  350  to  450 
pounds,  and  are  put  in  the  feed  lot,  where  they  are  fed  for 
an  early  market,  with  silage,  clover  or  alfalfa,  and  suitable 
grain  mixture,  corn  and  cottonseed  meal  being  the  favorite 
concentrates. 

Summer  feeding  of  steers  relates  to  the  practice  of  put- 
ting cattle  on  grass  in  the  spring,  and  turning  them  off  on 
the  market  in  fall  or  early  winter.  These  cattle  may  have 
been  fed  grass  only  or  have  received  concentrates.  Cattle 

*Beef  Production,  Bulletin  23.'),  Pennsylvania  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1913. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  251 

fed  grass  exclusively,  as  a  rule,  do  not  become  fat  as  com- 
pared with  those  receiving  grain.  In  some  localities  in  the 
blue-grass  sections  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Kentucky,  thin  cattle  put  on  flesh  rapidly  and 
do  remarkably  well,  but  even  then  a  ration  of  corn  in  addi- 
tion produces  a  better  class  of  fattening.  In  a  study  of  this 
subject  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,  conducted  by 
Dr.  H.  J.  Waters,  where  concentrates  were  fed  on  pasture, 
summer-fed  cattle  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  2}/£  pounds, 
covering  a  period  of  209  days.  It  required  about  8  pounds 
of  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight,  as  compared 
with  10  pounds  with  winter-fed  cattle,  a  saving  of  18J/2  Per 
cent  in  grain.  Dr.  Waters  gives  the  following  advantages 
of  fattening  on  pasturage,  compared  with  dry-lot  feeding:* 

1.  Grass  is  cheaper  than  hay. 

2.  Summer  gains  require  less  grain  than  winter  gains. 

3.  Steers  fatten  more  quickly  and  can  be  made  thick  and  prime 
on  corn  and  grass  with  greater  certainty,  more  uniformity,  and  the 
smaller  use  of  expensive  supplements  like  cottonseed  meal  and  linseed 
meal. 

4.  Hogs  following  the  steers  make  larger  gains,  and  return  more 
profit,  with  a  lower  death  rate. 

5.  In  summer  the  grain  only  is  drawn;  there  is  no  roughage  to 
handle. 

6.  The  steers  are  usually  fed  but  once  daily. 

7.  The  manure  is  scattered  by  the  cattle  themselves. 

The  feeding  of  yearlings  or  two-year-olds  is  commonly 
practiced  where  no  attempt  is  made  to  produce  baby  beef. 
In  this  case  calves  usually  come  in  the  spring,  and  are  car- 
ried on  pasture  the  first  summer,  going  through  the  first 
winter  with  dry  roughage,  such  as  corn  stover,  alfalfa,  or 
clover,  and  perhaps  silage,  with  a  light  feed  of  some  con- 
centrate, preferably  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal.  The  second 
summer  is  spent  on  grass  without  grain.  The  second  winter 
the  natural  tendency  would  be  to  feed  these  cattle  in  the 
dry  lot,  and  market  them  in  the  spring,  when  in  fairly  good 
condition.  Some  prefer  to  market  them  in  the  fall,  follow- 
ing grass  the  third  summer,  while  others  feed  corn  on  the 
grass,  to  get  a  better  condition.  Steers  fed  under  these 

*Circular  24,  Missouri  Experiment  Station, 


252  A    STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

conditions  should  weigh  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  when  ready 
for  the  market,  though,  if  finished  off  with  grain,  even  more 
weight  should  be  secured.  Steer  feeders  who  buy  on  the 
market  select  cattle  thin  in  flesh  in  the  fall,  and  feed  them 
in  the  dry  lot  for  a  period  of  six  months  or  more,  marketing 
them  as  fat  in  the  spring,  or  carrying  them  over  through  the 
summer,  and  then  fattening  as  already  explained.  At  the 
Purdue  University  Experiment  Station  during  the  years  1907, 
1908,  and  1909  a  comparative  study  was  made  of  groups  of 
steers  fed  in  the  dry  lot  and  those  on  pasture.  The  cattle 
in  the  dry  lot  were  fed  shelled  corn  and  cottonseed  meal, 


Figure  100. — A  herd  of  grade  yearling  steers  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 
Photograph  from  Ohio  Station. 

and  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay.     As  based  on  this  ex- 
perimental feeding,  Professors  Skinner  and  Cochel  state:* 
"From  the  three  years  work  it  would  be  safe  to  conclude  that  high 


grade  calves  showing  beef  type,  early  maturity,  quality  and  capacity 
for  feed,  can  be  profitably  finished  as  prime  yearlings  if  given  full  feed 
during  a  nine  months  period;  that  dry-lot  feeding  is  superior  to  pasture 
feeding  in  finishing  yearlings,  is  shown  by  the  rate  of  gain,  finish  secured, 
profit  per  steer,  price  received  per  bushel  for  corn,  and  interest  on  the 
investment." 

Short-fed  cattle  are  those  that  are  given  a  heavy  grain 
ration  for  a  period  of  about  three  months.  In  such  feeding, 
the  cattle,  if  bought  on  the  market,  are  comparatively  soon, 
say  within  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  put  on  full  feed.  Short- 

*Bulletin  142,  Purdue  University  Agr.  Expt.  Station,  1910. 


FEEDING    BEEF  CATTLE  253 

fed  cattle,  are  usually  heavier  of  weight  at  the  beginning  of 
feeding  than  are  those  fed  for  a  longer  period.  In  1908  the 
Purdue  station  started  a  load  of  short-feds  on  feed  on  August 
1st.  At  the  end  of  the  first  10  days  these  steers  were  eating 
11  pounds  shelled  corn  and  2  pounds  cottonseed  meal  each 
daily.  By  September  1st  they  were  eating  per  head  13J/2 
pounds  of  shelled  corn,  3J/2  pounds  cottonseed  meal  and  25 
pounds  of  silage.  The  heaviest  grain  feed  given  was  on  the 
third  month,  when  20  pounds  of  corn  and  4  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  were  fed  each  steer,  and  the  silage  was  reduced 
to  20  pounds.  On  November  27  these  cattle  were  shipped 
to  Chicago,  where  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposi- 
tion they  won  the  short-fed  carload  championship. 


Figure  101. — Feeding  roughage  on  the  range. 

The  feeding  of  steers  roughage  in  the  early  stages  of 
fattening,  may  vary  according  to  the  purpose.  Steers  to  be 
fed  a  long  period  may  start  in  with  roughage  alone,  and  then 
gradually  be  brought  to  grain  feed.  At  the  Pennsylvania 
station,  for  example,  one  lot  of  steers  was  fed  corn  silage  for 
roughage,  and  2^  pounds  cottonseed  meal  each,  for  the 
first  56  days  of  the  experiment,  after  which  a  feed  of  ear 
corn  was  given  daily  in  addition  to  silage  and  cottonseed 


254  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

meal.  A  second  lot  started  with  the  complete  ration  of 
silage,  cottonseed  meal  and  ear  corn,  but  did  no  better  than 
the  first  lot,  and  in  fact  returned  a  less  profit.  It  is  desir- 
able, however,  to  feed  corn  with  the  view  of  finish  for  market, 
and  the  addition  of  this  grain  to  the  roughage  might  well 
begin  within  a  month  after  feeding  begins.  If  one  wishes 
to  carry  cattle  over  for  a  late  market,  a  heavier  feed  of  rough- 
age than  usual  may  be  justified. 

IN  THE  FEEDING  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

1.  What  is  the  relationship  of  weight  to  nutritive  ratio? 

2.  What  ration  was  used  for  wintering  cows  at  the  Illinois  station? 

3.  When  should  grain  be  fed  on  pasture? 

4.  How  should  the  calves  be  handled  with  their  dams? 

5.  Why  is  skim  milk  a  valuable  food  for  calves? 

6.  How  should  the  spring-dropped  calf  be  wintered? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  baby  beef? 

8.  On  what  basis  should  grain  be  fed  to  baby  beef? 

9.  To  what  extent  should  grain  be  fed  to  steers  on  pasture,  if  at  all? 

10.  Give  four  of  the  advantages  of  pasture  fattening  as  outlined  by  Dr. 

Waters. 

11.  What  are  short-feds? 

TAKE  NOTE  OF  THESE  THINGS 

12.  To  what  extent  beef  production   occurs  in   the  vicinity  of  your 

home. 

13.  Whether  or  no  local  feeders  use  grain  on  pasture. 

14.  Do  calves  follow  their  dams  at  foot  on  pasture? 

15.  Who,  if  any  one,  in  your  section  feeds  baby  beef? 

16.  Is  beef  production  a  profitable  industry  in  your  vicinity?  If  not, 

why  not? 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SOME  FACTORS  INFLUENCING  BEEF  PRODUCTION 

The  person  breeding  and  feeding  beef  cattle  finds  it 
necessary  to  consider  a  number  of  things  which  are  factors 
in  problems  of  management  as  well  as  feeding.  Some  of 
these  are  herewith  considered  in  this  chapter. 


Figure  102. — An  excellent  type  of  Shorthorn  steer.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  influence  of  type  in  beef  production  is  manifest  in 
several  ways.  Prime  steers,  representing  the  blockiest  and 
best  killing  type  of  beef  cattle,  are  especially  valued  for  the 
high  percentage  of  the  more  choice  cuts,  for  the  quality  of 
the  meat,  and  the  superior  dressing  out  of  the  carcass.  Cattle 
of  this  type  do  not,  however,  necessarily  show  greater  gains 
in  weight  from  a  given  quantity  of  food  than  do  inferior 
steers  on  the  same  ration.  One  may  expect  to  sell  the  bet- 

255 


256  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ter  grades  of  cattle  for  the  higher  prices;  but,  if  purchased 
as  feeders,  their  initial  cost  may  be  so  great  as  to  result  in 
a  loss  rather  than  profit.  Several  American  experiment  sta- 
tions have  proven  this  fact  in  feeding  steers  of  different 
types.  One  of  these  of  special  interest  was  conducted  by 
the  Iowa  station.  Four  steers  of  beef  type  and  four  of  dairy 
type  were  fed  during  the  year  1903.  Two  of  the  steers 
were  pure-bred  Aberdeen-Angus,  two  grade  Herefords,  two 
Jerseys,  and  two  Holstein-Friesians.  When  the  experiment 
started  the  average  weight  of  the  beef  steers  was  685  pounds, 
while  the  dairy-type  steers  averaged  574  pounds.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  average  gain  of  the  beef  steers 
was  606  pounds,  while  that  of  the  dairy  type  was  598  pounds 
per  head.  The  average  cost  of  a  pound  of  gain  with  the 
beef  type  was  7.81  cents,  while  that  of  the  dairy  type  was 
but  7.63  cents.  The  average  selling  price  per  pound  for  the 
beef  type,  however,  was  4.89  cents,  while  the  dairy  type 
brought  but  3.75  cents  per  pound.  In  this  Iowa  experi- 
ment, it  was  demonstrated, 

(1)  That  the   gains  made  from  food   consumed,   were 
much  alike  with  each  type. 

(2)  That  the  beef  type  uses  his  food  to  the  best  advan- 
tage in  developing  the  more  valuable  cuts. 

(3)  •  That  the  beef  type  steer  shows  the  greatest  profit  to 
the  feeder. 

(4)  That  the  dairy  type  produces  the  most  offal  and  the 
greatest  amount  of  tallow. 

(5)  That  while  there  is  little  difference  in  per  cent  of 
valuable  cuts  in  the  two  types  of  steers,  those  of  the  beef 
type  were  thicker,  better  marbled  and  of  superior  color. 

The  influence  of  breed  in  beef  production  has  been  to 
some  extent  shown  in  the  preceding  section  in  type  discus- 
sion. In  this  case  steers  of  different  breeds  were  compared, 
with  the  results  noted.  In  various  feeding  experiments  in 
beef  production,  in  which  the  question  of  the  comparative 


FACTORS   INFLUENCING  BEEF  PRODUCTION        257 

merits  of  breeds  was  considered,  no  essential  difference  has 
been  shown  in  the  gains  in  weight  and  cost  of  production 
with  cattle  of  several  breeds  of  the  beef  type.  The  carcasses 
also  have  been  shown  to  be  quite  similar  in  value.  If,  how- 
ever, breeds  of  widely  different  types,  such  as  beef  and  dairy, 
were  compared,  then  it  has  invariably  been  shown  that, 
while  there  might  not  be  much  difference  in  the  gains  in  live 
weight  and  cost  of  the  same,  there  was  a  marked  difference, 
when  it  came  to  the  slaughter  test,  in  favor  of  the  beef 
breeds  in  carcass  value  and  percentage  of  offal. 

The  influence  of  age  on  beef  production  is  quite  marked. 
Quoting  various  experiments  reported  on  by  Henry  and 
Morrison,*  the  older  the  age  of  the  animal  fed,  the  smaller 
the  average  daily  gain  and  the  greater  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Prof.  Zavitz  fed 
a  steer  three  years.  It  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  2.2 
pounds  the  first  year,  with  a  total  gain  of  785  pounds;  the 
second  year  the  average  daily  gain  was  1.2  pound  with  a 
total  gain  of  456  pounds,  while  the  third  year  the  average 
gain  per  day  was  but  1  pound,  the  total  gain  for  that  year 
being  350  pounds.  At  the  Ontario  Experimental  Farm  at 
Ottawa,  in  four  years  of  feeding,  including  153  steers,  the 
average  cost  for  100  pounds  gain  live  weight  was  $4.22  for 
the  calves,  $5.31  for  the  yearlings,  $5.62  for  the  two-year- 
olds,  and  $6.36  for  the  three-year-olds. 

Two  age  factors  are  important  in  feeding  operations 
to-day.  The  market  demands  a  younger,  lighter  weight 
steer  than  was  the  case  a  few  years  ago,  and  heavy  cattle 
around  two  years  of  age  sell  at  a  discount.  A  second  factor 
is  that  of  the  condition  of  the  animals  when  placed  on  feed. 
Cattle  that  are  thin  respond  more  quickly  to  feed  than  do 
those  in  good  condition,  so  that  many  feeders  prefer  to  buy 
thin  yearlings  or  two-year-olds,  on  account  of  the  greater 
gains  that  will  be  secured.  If  the  condition  of  flesh  were 
the  same  with  cattle  of  different  ages  when  put  on  feed,  then 

*  Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917,  pp.  432-434. 


258 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


there  would  be  a  steady  increase  in  the  requirements  of  food 
from  calf  hood  to  maturity  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 
Messrs.  Skinner  and  Cochel  made  a  survey  of  beef  feeding 
in  Indiana,  in  which  they  found  that,  of  929  feeders,  76  per 
cent  fed  two-year-olds,  16  per  cent  yearlings,  and  7  per  cent 
calves.  The  average  weight  desired  in  a  two-year-old  was 
1,000  pounds.  "Some  feeders  preferred  steers  three  years 
old  or  over,  the  reason  being  that  such  cattle  usually  carry 

more  flesh  and  make 
more  rapid  gains,  thus 
requiring  a  shorter  feed- 
ing period.  They  also 
need  less  grain  to  finish 
them,  utilize  coarser 
food,  feed  out  more  uni- 
formly, and  withstand 
severe  weather  better." 
The  influence  of 
quality  in  beef  produc- 
tion is  of  great  import- 
ance. Animals  that  show 
coarse  joints,  heavy  bone 
and  hide,  and  marked 


Figure  103. — A  crossbred  Hereford-Aberdeen- 
Angus  steer,  showing  superior  quality. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


paunchiness,  lack  in 

quality  and  may  be  expected  to  dress  out  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  offal,  and  have  a  carcass  of  inferior  quality. 
When  the  more  valuable  cuts  are  thin  and  the  fat  is  un- 
evenly distributed  in  patchy  form,  then  the  carcass  brings 
much  less  money  than  the  one  with  thick  and  well- 
marbled  cuts,  with  the  external  fat  smoothly  distributed. 
On  all  discriminating  beef  markets,  this  matter  of  quality 
plays  an  important  part  in  values. 

The  influence  of  shelter  in  beef  production  has  attracted 
attention  among  feeders  for  many  years.  Some  breeds  are 
better  suited  to  exposure  than  others.  Certainly  the  West 


FACTORS   INFLUENCING   BEEF   PRODUCTION 


259 


Highland  cattle  of  Scotland,  with  their  thick  hides  and 
heavy  coats  of  hair,  do  not  require  the  same  shelter  from 
inclemency  of  winter  as  would  most  other  breeds.  Even 
on  our  western  prairies  the  need  of  shelter  in  winter  would 
not  be  nearly  so  apparent  for  Hereford  cattle  as  for  Short- 
horn or  Aberdeen-Angus,  due  to  an  ancestry  of  out-of-door 
living  and  a  constitution  especially  suited  to  range  condi- 
tions. Beef  cattle,  however,  have  comparatively  thick,  mel- 
low hides,  and  heavy  coats  of  hair  in  winter,  and  so  do  not 
need  the  warm  stables  usually  provided  for  dairy  cattle. 


Figure  104. — Beef  cattle  barns  and  concrete  silos  at  Curls'  Neck  Farm, Virginia, 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

Various  experiments  have  shown  that  steers  fed  in  open 
sheds,  rather  than  barns,  do  better  and  gain  more  in  weight, 
and  at  less  cost  than  those  confined  in  closed  stables. 

The  self-feeder  for  beef  cattle  is  a  box-like  affair  called 
a  hopper,  with  closely  boarded  sides,  having  a  trough-like 
arrangement  at  the  bottom  on  two  sides.  The  hopper  has 
a  roof,  to  protect  the  contents,  and  inside  the  bottom  in- 
clines like  an  inverted  V  to  each  slot.  Feed  is  put  in  through 
a  door  at  the  top  and  this  by  gravity  settles  down  and 
works  out  through  slots  into  feed  troughs  24  to  30  inches 


260  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

above  the  ground.  Self-feeders  of  the  smaller  size  may  be 
portable  so  as  to  be  moved  from  one  point  to  another.  This 
feature  is  an  advantage  when  the  ground  about  the  feeder 
becomes  muddy  and  unsuitable  for  cattle  to  stand  in.  Prof. 
Mumford  gives  a  plan  of  a  self-feeder*  that  is  12  feet  2 
inches  long,  5J/2  feet  high,  and  4  feet  4  inches  broad,  which 
holds  about  180  bushels.  Self-feeders  for  cattle  are  used  to 
some  extent,  but  are  not  in  general  use.  Commenting  on 
its  use,  Mumford  says  that  its  chief  advantage  is  as  a 
saving  of  labor,  and  that  " where  its  proper  use  in  the 
economy  of  cattle  feeding  is  understood,  it  is  not  necessarily 
a  wasteful  or  hazardous  method  of  finishing  cattle."  In 
experiments  with  the  self -feeder  at  the  Illinois  station,  Mum- 
ford  and  Allison  found  that  the  self-fed  steers  consumed  a 
slightly  heavier  concentrate  allowance,  and  were  brought  to 
full  feed  in  a  shorter  time  than  hand-fed  ones.  In  the  hands 
of  a  careful  manager,  if  the  cattle  are  brought  to  full  feed 
before  being  turned  to  the  self-feeder,  the  results  will  prob- 
ably be  satisfactory. 

The  paved  feed  lot  for  cattle  is  desirable  rather  than 
requiring  them  to  move  about  in  yards  deep  in  mud  and 
manure.  It  is  a  common  thing  during  winter  and  spring  to 
find  cattle  confined  more  or  less  in  yards  that  are  covered 
with  wet  manure  or  mud,  absolutely  unsanitary,  a  fine  place 
for  promoting  disease.  Lots  may  be  paved  with  brick  or 
concrete;  in  fact  the  latter  material  has  come  into  consider- 
able use  for  this  purpose.  In  an  experiment  at  the  Illinois 
station,  a  carload  of  steers  fed  in  a  mud  lot  gained  about  the 
same  as  one  fed  in  a  paved  lot,  but  brought  ten  cents  less  a 
hundred  in  the  market,  on  account  of  their  dirty  appearance. 
Also  pigs  following  steers  in  the  paved  lot  made  much  bet- 
ter gains  than  those  in  the  mud  lot.  In  the  Illinois  experi- 
ment the  steers  in  the  mud  lot  had  access  to  an  open  shed 
with  bedding  where  they  could  lie  down  and  be  comfortable, 
which  fact  accounts  for  their  making  the  good  showing  they 

*Beef  Production,  1908. 


FACTORS    INFLUENCING   BEEF   PRODUCTION         261 

made.  Prof.  Mumford  says,  however,  that  "steers  sub- 
jected to  a  mud  lot  with  no  suitable  place  to  lie  down  must 
suffer,  and  when  a  steer  is  uncomfortable  he  is  not  making 
gain  economically."  He  also  believes  that  cattle  will  not 
drink  as  much  water  as  they  need,  if  obliged  to  wade  through 
mud  to  obtain  it. 

The  margin  in  beef -cattle  selling  is  the  difference  between 
the  cost  per  hundred  of  the  feeder  on  the  market  and  the 
price  per  hundred  received  for  it  when  sold.  For  example, 


Figure   105. — An  English  feed  lot  near  Faringdon,  Oxfordshire,  paved  with 
macadam.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

if  a  steer  weighing  500  pounds  costs  $6.00  per  hundred  when 
put  on  feed,  its  total  cost  would  be  $30.00.  Should  it  gain 
500  pounds  in  live  weight  at  a  feed  cost  of  $35.00,  then  each 
100  pounds  of  gain  would  cost  $7.00.  Assuming  the  value 
of  the  manure  will  offset  the  cost  of  labor,  the  1,000-pound 
steer  has  now  cost  the  owner  $65.00,  the  equivalent  of  $6.50 
per  hundred  in  the  feed  lot  when  ready  to  sell.  In  order  to 
break  even  on  this  feeding  transaction,  the  owner  would 
need  to  obtain  enough  more  at  time  of  sale  than  the  original 
cost  of  the  steer,  to  offset  its  total  cost  per  hundred,  which 


262  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

would  be  50  cents,  which  is  known  as  the  "necessary  margin" 
to  prevent  loss.  If  the  steer  is  sold  for  $8.00  per  hundred, 
then  we  have  an  actual  margin  of  $1.50  per  hundred,  which 
is  the  difference  between  the  actual  price  received  at  sale 
and  the  original  purchase  price. 

There  are  numerous  things  which  influence  the  margin, 
as  already  brought  out,  as  first  cost,  first  weight,  cost  of 
gain,  delivery  to  feed  lot  and  later  marketing,  and  time  of 
year  and  feed  conditions.  "The  heavier  the  cattle  to  be  fed, 
and  the  better  their  condition  when  placed  on  feed,  the  nar- 
rower will  be  the  necessary  margin.  The  higher  the  price 
of  feed  stuffs,  the  wider  should  be  the  necessary  margin, 
while  cattle  on  pasture,  making  inexpensive  gains,  naturally 
require  a  narrower  margin  than  winter-fed  stock. 

Separate  care  of  beef  cattle  of  different  ages  and  sexes 
is  given  in  all  well-regulated  herds.  Young  calves  of  both 
sexes  may  run  together  until  three  or  four  months  old,  after 
which  time  they  should  be  fed  and  cared  for  separately.  Heif- 
ers to  be  retained  for  breeding  should  be  fed  and  cared  for 
in  lots  by  themselves.  Cows  with  calves  require  very  close 
attention  in  feed  and  care,  while  dry  cows  require  less  feed 
and  supervision.  Bulls  should  not  run  with  the  herd,  but 
should  be  provided  good  yards,  affording  plenty  of  exercise. 

Tuberculosis  is  one  of  the  most  common  diseases  affect- 
ing cattle.  It  is  caused  by  a  form  of  bacteria  known  as 
Bacillus  tuberculosis,  a  very  minute,  slender  rod-shaped 
organism,  or  what  we  commonly  term  a  germ.  A  tubercular 
animal  may  be  affected  in  various  ways.  The  lungs,  liver, 
spleen,  small  glands,  udder  and  intestines  in  well-advanced 
stages  develop  lumps  or  tubers,  containing  cheesy-like  matter. 
When  the  lungs  are  affected,  animals  cough  and  expectorate 
sputum,  which  contains  the  germs  through  which  the  disease 
is  spread.  Germs  are  also  passed  off  in  the  excrement,  and 
so  may  be  found  anywhere  in  manure  that  comes  from  tuber- 
cular cows.  In  advanced  stages  of  the  disease,  cattle  may 


FACTORS   INFLUENCING   BEEF  PRODUCTION        263 

become  very  thin,  the  coat  of  hair  is  more  or  less  harsh 
and  staring,  there  is  diarrhea,  bloat  and  weakness,  and  cough- 
ing may  ensue  when  rising  after  lying  down. 

Tuberculosis  is  very  contagious,  and  one  affected  cow 
will  spread  the  disease  amongst  a  herd  and  ruin  it.  The 
germs  live  for  a  long  time  in  dark  stables,  in  mangers  and 
manure  trenches,  etc.  When  the  udder  is  affected,  they 
also  pass  off  in  the  milk,  and,  if  this  is  fed  to  healthy  calves 
or  pigs,  they  usually  contract  the  disease.  The  tubercular 
germ  is  killed  by  a  few  hours  exposure  to  sunlight,  and  is 
destroyed  in  milk  that  is  heated  up  to  145  degrees  for  25 
minutes,  and  then  suddenly  cooled  to  40  degrees.  For 
family  use,  milk  heated  to  165  degrees  for  5  minutes  and  then 
cooled  to  about  40  degrees,  will  be  safe  to  use. 

The  universal  method  of  determining  whether  a  cow  has 
tuberculosis  to-day  is  by  the  tuberculin  test.  A  serum  is 
produced  in  the  laboratory  by  growing  the  germs  of  the 
disease,  in  a  solution,  which  at  a  certain  stage  of  develop- 
ment is  boiled  to  destroy  all  germ  life.  If  some  of  this  solu- 
tion is  then  injected  beneath  the  skin  of  a  tubercular  cow, 
her  temperature  during  a  few  succeeding  hours  will  go 
through  a  rather  steady  rise  of  two  degrees,  and  then  fall. 
If  she  has  no  tuberculosis,  her  temperature  will  not  change. 
There  is  also  another  test,  the  intradermal,  in  which  the 
serum  is  injected  between  the  outer  and  inner  layers  of  skin, 
and  still  another  test,  the  ophthalmic,  in  which  tuberculin 
is  applied  in  the  eye. 

Every  herd  should  be  tuberculin  tested,  and  each  reactor 
should  be  killed,  subject  to  inspection.  If  the  carcass  itself 
is  not  affected,  and  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  organs 
that  are  removed,  the  meat  is  suitable  for  food.  In  1921  at 
10  Armour  Packing  Houses,  4,728  cattle  were  held  by  the 
Government  inspectors  for  further  examination,  because  of 
suspected  tuberculosis.  Of  these  76.48  per  cent  were  con- 
demned as  unfit  for  food.* 

^Progressive  Beef  Cattle  Raising.      Published  by  Armour  &  Co.    1922. 


264  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Accredited  herds  are  now  being  established  all  over  the 
United  States  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  in 
co-operation  with  state  veterinarians  or  cattle  commissioners. 
An  accredited  herd  must  pass  a  100  per  cent  tuberculin  test 
for  three  successive  years,  showing  it  to  be  free  from  tuber- 
culosis. There  are  now  thousands  of  accredited  herds  in 
this  country  with  interest  in  this  subject  steadily  increasing. 

As  there  is  no  known  cure  for  tuberculosis,  the  thing  for 
the  stockman  to  do  is  to  use  preventive  methods.  The 
stable  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  In  making 
the  highest  grade  of  milk — that  is,  certified — it  is  recom- 
mended by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  that  each 
cow  be  allowed  at  least  4  square  feet  of  window  light  and  500 
cubic  feet  of  air  space.  Sunlight  is  a  stable  disinfectant. 
Water  troughs  and  mangers  should  be  kept  clean,  as  the 
disease  is  distributed  through  these  mediums.  The  stables 
should  be  kept  whitewashed,  or  sprayed  at  frequent  intervals 
with  disinfectants,  as,  for  example,  a  5  per  cent  solution  of 
creolin,  which  may  be  purchased  at  most  drug  stores. 

Lump  jaw  is  a  disease  that  appears  as  a  hard  swelling  or 
tumor  on  the  jaws  of  cattle.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungous  disease 
that  grows  on  some  forms  of  grasses  and  stubble.  If  the 
jaw  is  badly  diseased,  it  becomes  ulcerated,  the  cattle  find  it 
difficult  to  chew  their  food,  and  sometimes  die.  This  disease 
is  not  communicated  to  other  animals  by  one  that  is  affected. 
What  is  known  as  iodine  treatment  may  cure  the  disease  in 
its  early  stages,  but  as  a  rule,  it  is  recommended  to  fatten  and 
slaughter  cattle  having  this  disease,  as  the  carcass  is  suitable 
for  food  when  only  the  head  is  affected.  The  udder  of  the 
hog  is  sometimes  affected  by  this  disease. 

Blackleg  is  a  very  contagious  disease  caused  by  a  germ 
known  as  the  blackleg  bacillus.  The  animal  becomes  in- 
fected through  an  abrasion  on  the  skin,  and  the  disease  is 
transmitted  by  contaminated  animals  by  discharges  from  the 
skin  wounds.  The  symptoms  are  first  a  high  fever  and  loss 


FACTORS    INFLUENCING   BEEF   PRODUCTION        265 

of  appetite,  difficulty  in  breathing  and  in  locomotion.  The 
membranes  of  the  mouth  later  become  dark  red  or  purple, 
and  swellings  appear  on  the  more  muscular  parts,  as  thighs 
and  shoulders,  which  may  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Under  these  swellings  a  bloody  fluid  develops,  and  the  flesh 
of  the  legs  takes  on  a  dark  color,  hence  the  name  blackleg. 
As  the  disease  is  not  curable,  preventivemeasuresareadopted. 
Healthy  cattle  are  vaccinated  with  a  vaccine  produced  in  the 
laboratory  from  the  disease  germs.  This  treatment  is  very 
effective  in  preventing  the  malady. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease  especially  affects  cattle,  although 
it  may  occur  with  swine  and  sheep.  The  disease  is  indicated 
by  a  fever,  and  by  the  appearance  of  water  blisters  on  the 
mouth,  a  great  flow  of  saliva,  and  sore  feet.  This  is  a  very 
contagious  disease,  but  is  not  usually  fatal,  although  it  does 
great  damage  to  herds.  While  very  prevalent  on  the  contin- 
ent of  Europe,  it  has  never  had  a  permanent  foothold  in  the 
United  States,  because  of  the  fact  that  it  has  been  stamped 
out  by  our  government  through  a  strict  policy  of  quarantine 
and  slaughter. 

Foot  rot  of  a  contagious  nature,  which  occurs  with  cattle 
and  sheep,  though  more  commonly  with  the  latter,  is  due  to 
germs  which  develop  between  the  toes  and  under  the  hoofs. 
The  foot  becomes  hot  and  swelled,  and  finally  pus  is  formed 
and  discharged  when  the  swellings  break.  The  sores  develop 
under  the  shell-like  part  of  the  hoof,  and  in  bad  cases  the 
outer  horny  layer  may  drop  off.  Naturally  the  animal  be- 
comes very  lame,  and  may  hardly  be  able  to  walk.  The  pus 
which  comes  from  the  sore  scatters  the  disease  among  the 
healthy  animals  of  the  herd.  For  treatment  the  diseased 
tissue  should  be  trimmed  away,  the  foot  thoroughly  washed 
with  strong  disinfectants,  and  if  need  be  bandaged.  An 
excellent  disinfectant  is  a  strong  solution  of  copper  sulfate. 
Sometimes  in  extreme  cases  of  diseased  hoofs,  pure  copper 
sulfate  crystals  are  packed  about  the  hoof.  Foot  rot  is  very 


266  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

hard  to  cure,  and,  when  discovered  in  a  herd,  should  be 
treated  vigorously  and  the  treatment  repeated  frequently 
enough  to  cure  the  trouble.  For  preventive  measure  cattle 
and  sheep  may  be  walked  through  shallow  troughs  containing 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulfate,  repeating  the  treat- 
ment every  two  or  three  weeks.  Yards  and  stables  heavy  in 
manure  and  mud  are  great  breeding  grounds  for  foot  rot. 

Hemorrhagic  septicemia  occurs  with  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine.  In  swine  it  is  a  form  of  cholera.  Little  is  known  of 
the  origin  of  the  disease.  Animals  that  are  sick  show  a  strong 
fever,  swell  about  throat  and  brisket,  and  have  difficulty  in 
breathing.  If  the  intestines  are  affected,  the  animal  may 
act  colicky,  and  the  solid  excrement  may  be  bloody.  After 
death  hemorrhage  is  found  under  the  skin  and  in  the  in- 
testine walls,  with  bloody  spots  about  the  membranes  of  the 
heart  and  diaphragm  in  particular.  The  disease  may  be 
acute,  which  is  very  fatal,  or  sub-acute,  when  from  five  to 
fifteen  per  cent  of  the  herd  may  die.  This  disease  is  most 
common  with  cattle  on  swampy  pastures  or  where  the  drink- 
ing water  is  stagnant  and  unsanitary.  Prevention  is  more 
satisfactory  than  treatment,  and  so  stock  should  be  kept  on 
well-drained  land  and  given  good  drinking  water.  Water 
troughs  and  mangers  should  be  frequently  cleaned,  and 
disinfectants  used  liberally  in  the  stable. 

Anthrax,  or  charbon,  is  a  germ  disease  that  affects  many 
kinds  of  animals,  especially  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  It  is 
most  abundant  in  warm,  moist  climates.  Low-lying,  moist 
pastures  may  be  infected  with  the  disease  for  many  years. 
There  are  several  forms  of  the  disease.  One  acts  like 
apoplexy,  in  which  the  animal  becomes  suddenly  sick,  staggers, 
falls,  and  dies  in  convulsions.  The  abdominal  form  is  as- 
sociated with  swelling  and  pain  in  the  abdomen,  diarrhea, 
etc.  The  thoracic  form  exhibits  bloody  discharge  from  the 
nostrils,  salivation,  swelling  of  the  throat  and  rapid  breath- 
ing. Swellings  or  carbuncles  occur  with  each  of  these  forms. 


FACTORS   INFLUENCING   BEEF  PRODUCTION        267 

There  is  no  known  cure,  but  by  vaccination  animals  may  be 
made  immune  from  the  disease.  All  anthrax  carcasses 
should  be  burned.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  by  men 
in  working  among  animals  having  anthrax,  for  the  disease  is 
readily  communicated  to  humans  through  abrasions  on  the 
skin.  Occasionally  persons  handling  hides  from  foreign 
countries  have  contracted  anthrax. 

Warbles  are  caused  by  a  large  fly,  which  lays  its  eggs  on 
the  hair  of  cattle.  The  animal  licks  its  hair  and  swallows  the 
eggs,  which  hatch  in  the  gullet,  where  the  young  grubs 
work  their  way  through,  finally  to  locate  in  the  tissue  just 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  back.  Here  they  develop,  so  that  by 
spring  one  notices  little  tumors  in  the  skin,  in  the  center  of 
which  is  a  small  hole.  Through  these  holes  the  grub  works 
its  way  and  drops  to  the  ground  where  it  develops  into  a  fly. 
The  holes  made  by  the  grub  greatly  injure  the  hides  for 
commerical  use,  if  there  at  time  of  slaughter. 

Milk-fever  is  a  disease  especially  noticeable  among  cows 
that  are  heavy  milkers  and  occurs  most  commonly  after  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  calving.  It  usually  occurs  two  or 
three  days  after  the  calf  is  born.  There  is  no  absolute 
knowledge  as  to  the  cause,  although  some  think  blood  con- 
gests in  the  udder,  while  others  believe  it  due  to  poisons 
developed  in  the  milk.  Cows  sick  with  milk  fever  show  the 

following  symptoms,  as  described  by  Dr.  F.  B.  Hadley.* 

"The  symptoms  of  milk  fever  start  with  excitement  and  end  in 
complete  loss  of  consciousness,  the  animal  going  through  much  the 
same  stages  as  when  given  a  general  anesthetic,  such  as  ether  or  chloro- 
form. The  patient  has  a  wild  look  in  the  eye,  switches  her  tail,  trembles, 
weakens,  staggers,  lies  or  falls  down,  tries  to  rise  but  is  unable  to  do  so 
on  account  of  paralysis  of  the  muscles.  She  then  loses  all  sensation  and 
passes  into  a  state  of  unconsciousness  cr  coma,  with  her  head  tucked 
into  the  right  flank.  The  breathing  is  deep  and  slow.  Later  the  cow 
stretches  out  flat  on  her  side." 

Treatment  for  milk-fever  is  simple  and  effective,  consist- 
ing in  pumping  air  into  the  udder.  It  may  be  best  applied 
by  means  of  a  milking  tube  on  the  end  of  rubber  tubing, 
using  a  bicycle  pump  for  inflation.  The  milking  tube  before 

*Priuciples  of  Veterinary  Science    1920   p.  340. 


268  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

using  should  be  thoroughly  sterilized,  and  the  ends  of  the 
teats  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
pump  too  great  a  pressure  of  air  in  the  udder.  "To  prevent 
escape  of  the  air,"  writes  Dr.  Hadley,  "the  end  of  the  teat  is 
repeatedly  pushed  into  itself  until  it  stays  of  its  own  accord." 
Other  veterinarians  recommend  tying  strips  of  muslin  or 
tape  around  the  ends  of  the  teats  to  prevent  escape  of  the 
air.  If  recovery  does  not  become  apparent  within  four  or 
five  hours,  the  treatment  should  be  repeated. 

WHAT  EFFECT  HAVE  THE  FOLLOWING  INFLUENCES  ON  BEEF 
PRODUCTION? 

1.  Type,    (a)  In  making  gains. 

(b)  In  production  of  high  priced  cuts. 

(c)  In  selling  values. 

2.  Breed.    What  have  feeding  experiments  shown? 

3.  Age.       (a)  Gains  in  weight. 

(b)  Cost  of  production. 

4.  Quality,  and  its  relationship  to  values. 

5.  Shelter,  (a)  Comparing  breeds. 

(b)  Types  of  shelter. 

6.  The  self-feeder. 

7.  The  paved  feed  lots  compared  with  the  dirt  lot. 

8.  The  margin;  what  is  it,  how  affected. 

9.  Tuberculosis  and  lump  jaw. 

SUGGESTED  OBSERVATIONS  ON  BEEF  MAKING 

10.  The  type  of  cattle  fed  in  your  neighborhood. 

11.  The  popular  ages  in  feed  lots. 

12.  The  kind  of  shelters  provided. 

13.  The  use  of  the  self-feeder. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  Jersey  breed  of  cattle  originated  on  an  island  of 
that  name  located  off  the  coast  of  France  in  the  English 
channel.  There  is  a  small  group  of  what  are  known  as  the 
Channel  Islands  not  far  from  the  coast  of  Normandy.  In 
fact,  from  Jersey  on  a  clear  day  one  may  see  the  French 


Figure  106. — Raleigh's  Fairy  Boy  83767,  a  famous  Jersey  bull,  both  as  an 
individual  and  sire.  Owned  by  C.  I.  Hudson  of  New  York.  Photograph 
by  the  author. 

coast.  There  are  four  principal  islands,  of  which  Jersey, 
the  largest,  contains  about  40,000  acres.  The  climate  here 
is  quite  mild  and  balmy  much  of  the  year.  The  cattle,  of 
which  there  are  about  12,000,  live  out  of  doors  during  a  very 
long  season,  each  one  grazing  tethered  by  a  chain  and  rope 
fastened  to  an  iron  pin  in  the  ground.  The  herds  are  small, 
and  these  and  potatoes  are  the  chief  sources  of  inconi?  o.i 

269 


270  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Jersey.     There  are  perhaps  60,000  people  on  the  island. 

Jersey  cattle  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  stock 
in  the  neighboring  districts  of  Normandy  and  Brittany  in 
France.  They  have  been  kept  pure  of  blood  for  much  over 
a  century.  As  early  as  1763  the  people  on  the  island  adopted 
laws  to  regulate  the  importation  of  cattle  from  France.  For 
a  very  long  time  no  foreign  cattle  have  been  allowed  to  enter 
Jersey,  except  such  as  were  butchered  within  24  hours  after 
landing.  In  1833  the  people  organized  a  society  to  improve 
the  agriculture  of  the  island,  and  the  next  year  they  drew 
up  a  scale  of  points  for  the  bulls  and  cows.  Since  then  it 
has  been  changed  and  improved  a  number  of  times.  The 
people  made  notable  progress  in  improving  their  cattle,  and 
no  doubt  the  competition  of  the  show  ring  and  the  butter 
and  milk  tests  which  were  established  inspired  them  to  study 
to  secure  this  improvement. 

The  Jersey  was  first  brought  to  America  about  1850, 
Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  men  being  the  importers. 
Since  then  large  numbers  have  been  brought  to  this  country, 
and  have  been  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  so  that  now  this  is  the  most  common  dairy  breed 
of  cattle  known  in  North  America. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Jersey  are  as  follows :  The  size 
is  medium,  though  many  seem  small.  Mature  bulls  should 
weigh  from  1,300  to  1,400  pounds,  and  cows  850  to  900 
pounds,  though  many  animals  exceed  these  weights.  The 
color  is  fawn,  but  of  various  shades,  some  being  the  color  of 
the  deer  or  lighter,  others  very  dark,  approaching  black. 
White  occurs,  though  it  is  not  popular  in  America,  and  but 
comparatively  few  animals  show  distinct  white  markings. 
The  form  is  distinctly  of  the  dairy  or  triple  wedge  type.  The 
head  is  very  attractive,  having  a  somewhat  large  and  promi- 
nent eye,  a  dished  face  and  small  refined  horn;  the  neck  is 
thin  and  of  medium  length;  the  withers  thin;  shoulders 
somewhat  prominent;  body  of  moderate  depth  and  feeding 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


271 


capacity;  rump  of  fair  width  and  length,  and  thighs  thin 
and  incurving.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  hocks  to  stand 
somewhat  close  together,  and  the  rump  is  often  narrow  and 
steep.  The  approved  type  of  udder  comes  up  high  behind, 
is  carried  level  and  well  forward  along  the  belly,  with  the 
front  quarters  especially  well  developed.  The  teats  should 
be  of  convenient  size  and  squarely  placed,  to  permit  com- 
fortable manipulation  in  milking.  In  recent  years  we  have 
heard  more  or  less  about  American-type  and  Island-type 


Figure  107. — Jersey  cow,  Simple  Interest  4th.     Photograph  taken  in  the  field 
by  the  author  on  the  Island  of  Jersey. 

Jerseys.  The  former  is  somewhat  larger,  coarser,  plainer- 
headed,  and  less  symmetrical  in  udder  than  the  latter. 
Many  American-type  Jerseys  have  udders  that  are  poorly 
developed  in  front,  showing  the  whole  much  out  of  balance. 
The  most  striking  features  in  the  appearance  of  the  Jersey 
are  the  color;  the  wedge  form;  the  short,  dished  face;  the 
prominent,  beautiful  eye;  the  fine  bone,  and  the  deer-like 
character  of  the  calves.  The  disposition  of  the  cows  is  very 


272  A   8TUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

good,  but  the  bulls  at  maturity  are  liable  to  be  nervous  and 
are  often  cross.  Jerseys  mature  very  young,  compared  with 
other  breeds. 

The  milk  of  the  Jersey  is  usually  yellow  in  color  and 
rich  in  butter-fat.  The  skin  of  these  cattle  show  something 
of  this  rich  yellow  color,  especially  in  the  small,  wax-col- 
ored horns,  in  the  ears,  and  about  the  udder.  The  Jersey 
of  good  breeding  produces  a  fair  amount  of  milk,  and  5,000 
pounds  a  year  may  be  regarded  as  common,  while  many 
cows  have  produced  over  10,000  pounds  a  year  each.  Up 
to  May,  1921,  over  1,500  two-year-old  heifer  records  of  Jer- 
seys average  7,691  pounds  of  milk,  while  1,459  cows  five 
years  old  or  over  show  an  average  of  9,701  pounds  of  milk. 
The  cow  of  this  breed  showing  the  most  remarkable  pro- 
duction is  Sophie  19th,  of  Hood  Farm,  that  during  nine 
consecutive  years  produced  110,938  pounds  of  milk.  The 
heaviest  milk  record  of  a  Jersey  cow  in  a  year  was  19,694 
pounds  by  the  cow  Passport.  Jersey  milk  usually  contains 
4 J/2  to  5  per  cent  of  fat,  and  makes  a  high  grade  of  butter. 
Many  cows  have  produced  enough  milk  in  a  week  to  yield 
14  or  more  pounds  of  butter.  Some  few  have  records  of 
over  20  pounds  in  a  week.  Many  Jerseys  have  produced 
enough  milk  within  a  year  to  yield  500  pounds  of  butter, 
and  some  have  even  exceeded  this.  Up  to  May  1,  1921,  the 
1,543  two-year-olds  noted  above  gave  an  average  annual  fat 
yield  in  the  milk  of  356  pounds,  while  the  1,459  aged  cows 
averaged  510  pounds  of  fat.  Up  to  1921  three  Jersey  cows 
have  produced  1,000  pounds  or  more  of  milk  fat  in  a  year, 
Plain  Mary  having  1,040  pounds  and  Vive  La  France  1,039 
pounds,  and  Sophie's  Agnes  1,000  pounds.  In  nine  con- 
secutive yearly  records,  Sophie  %19th,  of  Hood  Farm,  pro- 
duced a  total  of  6,354.6  pounds  of  milk  fat. 

There  is  a  number  of  noted  Jersey  families,  of  which  the 
Golden  Lad,  Oxford,  Financial  Interest,  Signal,  St.  Lambert, 
Coomassie,  Eurotas,  Tormentor,  and  Owl-Interest  are  espe- 


BREEDS   OF  DAIRY  CATTDB 


273 


cially  well-known;  but  many  Jerseys  in  little  known  families 
have  made  remarkable  milk  and  butter-fat  records. 

Prices  for  Jersey  cattle  under  average  conditions  are  very 
reasonable.  In  the  past,  however,  many  animals  have 
brought  what  may  be  regarded  as  very  high  prices.  In  1919 
Edmond  Butler  broke  Jersey  price  records,  selling  47  head 
for  $158,250,  an  average  of  $3,367.02.  At  this  sale  the  bull 
Sybil's  Gamboge  was  sold  for  $65,000  to  Mr.  L.  V.  Walkley, 
the  record  for  a  male,  while  in  1921,  at  Mr.  Walkley's  sale, 


Figure  108. — Jersey  heifer  calf,  Buttercup's  Jasmine.     Owned  by  C.  I.  Hudson 
of  New  York.     Photograph  from  Mr.  Hudson. 

the  cow  Gamboge  Oxford  Gem  sold  for  $18,000,  the  high 
price  for  a  cow  of  the  breed. 

The  distribution  of  Jerseys  is  world-wide,  but  they  are 
generally  common  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  They 
have  an  especially  strong  foothold  in  the  states  of  Ohio, 
Texas,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Oregon.  The  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  with  head- 


274  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

quarters  in  New  York  City,  is  the  official  national  promoter 
of  the  breed.  Activity  in  promoting  Jerseys  is  shown  in  that 
up  to  May,  1921,  there  were  organized  167  state  and  local 
Jersey  clubs,  70  bull  clubs,  and  61  calf  clubs. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  of  cattle  came  originally 
from  Holland.  Here  the  people  have  kept  dairy  cows  for 
centuries.  The  country  is  very  low,  much  of  it  lying  below 
sea  level,  the  water  being  held  back  by  dykes.  There  are 
many  meadows  that  are  separated  by  canals.  On  long, 
narrow  strips  of  pasture,  with  water  on  each  side,  one  sees 
beautiful  herds  of  black  and  white  cattle,  a  most  common 


Figure.  109. — The  Kuperus  herd  and  barn  near  Leuwarden,  Holland.     Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 

summer  sight  in  Holland.  We  do  not  know  the  origin  of 
these  cattle.  They  are  perhaps  descended  from  the  Giant 
Ox.  The  present  cattle  are  usually  black  and  white,  though 
red  and  white  rarely  occur.  Cattle  were  brought  to  America 
from  Holland  by  the  early  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  and 
vicinity.  In  1795  the  Holland  Land  Company  sent  some 
cattle  to  central  New  York.  Later  on,  Dutch  cattle  were 
taken  to  Vermont  and  other  eastern  states.  Along  in  the 
middle  and  later  part  of  the  last  century  many  were  imported 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


275 


into  America,  but  in  recent  years  importation  has  been  pro- 
hibited, owing  to  foot-and-mouth  disease  which  is  more  or 
less  prevalent  at  all  times  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  characteristics  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  are  as  fol- 
lows :  in  size  they  are  the  largest  of  the  common  dairy  breeds, 
mature  bulls  often  weighing  from  2,000  to  2,500  pounds  and 
cows  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds  or  more.  The  color,  which 
is  a  striking  feature  of  the  breed,  is  black-and-white  spotted, 
the  amount  of  one  color  or  the  other  varying  greatly  in  dif- 


jfc      STOCK  FARMS, 

QCOttOMOVVOC 


Figure  110. — Holstein-Friesian  bull  calf,  Carnation  King  Sylvia,  bought  in 
1918  for  the  record  price  of  $106,000  by  Carnation  Stock  Farms. 
Photograph  from  the  owners. 

ferent  animals.  In  recent  years,  however,  cattle  that  showed 
much  more  white  than  black  have  been  in  most  favor.  The 
heads  incline  to  be  a  trifle  long  and  narrow;  the  horns  seem- 
ing small  for  such  a  large  breed;  the  body  is  capacious;  the 
rump  is  long  and  often  steep;  and  the  thighs  are  large  and 
in  many  instances  tend  to  be  somewhat  thick  and  beefy. 
The  udder  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  breed,  tending  to  be 
pendant,  and  with  age  hanging  low  rather  than  being  held 


276  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

fairly  close  to  the  belly.     In  some  cases  the  udder  attains 
immense   size   and   capacity. 

There   are   three  recognized  types  of  this  breed: 

(a)  The  thin-fleshed,  wedge-shaped  type; 

(b)  Those  that  carry  somewhat  more  flesh;  and 

(c)  Those  that  are  rather  broad  over  the  withers  and 
thick  in  the  quarters,  and  show  more  beefiness  than  dairy 
cattle  men  usually  admire. 

Many  persons  approve  the  medium  between  the  two 
extremes,  if  the  cow  is  a  satisfactory  producer  of  milk.  An 
animal  of  beefy  form,  with  a  thick  pair  of  thighs,  is  not  to  be 
commended.  Among  the  noted  Holstein-Friesian  sires  one 
finds  extremes  in  type,  some  animals  possessing  conforma- 
tion that  is  far  from  what  might  be  regarded  as  ideal. 

The  milk  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  is  about  average,  or 
below,  in  quality,  not  being  noted  for  butter-fat  content. 
But  in  production  of  quantity  of  milk,  this  breed  leads  all 
others  in  a  marked  degree.  A  large  number  of  cows  have 
produced  yields  of  over  100  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day, 
Cascade  Johanna  Illustrites  having  the  remarkable  record  of 
161.4  pounds  in  1  day  and  3,546  pounds  in  30  days.  There 
are  many  records  of  over  25,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 
Most  remarkable  among  these  is  that  of  Tilly  Alcartra,  a 
California  cow  that  has  produced  in  eight  consecutive  yearly 
records  a  total  of  201,138  pounds  of  milk,  a  yearly  average 
of  25,142  pounds.  The  greatest  yearly  production  of  milk 
by  a  cow  of  the  breed  was  by  Segis  Pietertje  Prospect,  of 
37,381  pounds,  completed  in  1921. 

Holstein-Friesian  milk  usually  contains  a  small  per  cent 
of  fat,  3  per  cent  being  common,  and  4  per  cent  unusual  for 
cows  not  being  in  official  test.  Breeders,  however,  are 
steadily  improving  the  breed  in  this  respect,  so  that  no 
doubt  there  will  be  an  improvement  in  the  average  amount 
of  fat.  On  account  of  the  large  milk  yield,  however,  the 
butter-fat  in  one  day  may  amount  to  a  very  important  total. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


277 


In  1919  the  cow  Rolo  Mercena  De  Kol  produced  51.93 
pounds  of  estimated  80%  butter  in  her  milk  in  a  7-day  test, 
while  during  30  days  she  produced  201.17  pounds.  From 
1915  to  1921  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby  held  the  world's  rec- 
ord for  a  year's  production  of  butter-fat,  1,205  pounds, 
or  1,506.36  pounds  of  estimated  butter.  In  1921  Bella 
Pontiac,  however,  completed  a  record  for  a  year  of  1,258.8 
fat,  equal  to  1,587.5  pounds  of  butter.  Up  to  1922  there  have 
been  official  advanced  registry  (A.R.O.)  records  made  by 
50  cows  of  1 ,000  pounds  or  more  of  butter-fat  in  365  days  or 


Figure  111. — Holstein-Friesian  cow,  Springbrook  Bess  Burke  2d,  one  of  the 
most  noted  dams  and  producers  of  the  breed.  Photograph  from  the 
owners,  E.  C.  Shroeder  Farms,  Minnesota. 

less.  In  May  1921,  the  President  of  the  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  of  America  stated*  that  "the  Advanced  Registry 
contains  milk  and  butter  records  to  the  number  of  125,000, 
and  last  year  there  were  added  thereto  about  17,000  records," 
which  showing  is  remarkable. 

Among  the  noted  Holstein-Friesian  families  are  the 
Bess  Burke,  Clothilde,  De  Kol,  Johanna,  Korndyke,  May 
Echo,  Netherland,  Ona,  Pauline  Paul,  Pietertje,  and  Segis. 

*Hoard's  Dairyman,  June  3.  1921. 


278  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Prices  for  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  range  from  ordinary 
to  the  highest  that  have  been  paid  for  cattle  of  any  breed. 
A  considerable  number  of  animals  sold  during  the  period 
following  the  World  War  for  from  $10,000  each  or  more. 
The  bull  Carnation  King  Sylvia,  a  son  of  the  famous  cow 
May  Echo  Sylvia,  sold  in  1918  for  $106,000. 

The  distribution  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  is  very  wide- 
spread. In  the  United  States,  New  York  holds  first  place  as 
a  center  for  the  breed,  with  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Michigan  ranking  in  numbers  of  animals  in  the  order 
given.  A  large  percentage  of  the  cattle  of  this  breed  are 
located  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  Central  States.  The 
breed  is  promoted  by  the  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of 
America,  with  about  20,000  members,  and  by  many  state 
and  local  breed  associations.  The  breed  has  had  a  wonder- 
ful development  in  the  United  States,  and  is  constantly 
growing  in  favor.  The  great  feeding  and  producing  capacity 
of  the  cows,  and  their  quiet  disposition,  have  added  much 
to  their  popularity,  especially  among  men  supplying  milk  to 
creameries  or  the  city  trade.  In  recent  years,  especially 
during  and  since  the  World  War,  Holstein-Friesians  or 
Friesians  as  they  are  termed  there,  have  grown  in  great 
favor  in  Great  Britain. 

Guernsey  cattle  originated  on  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
another  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and  come  from  much  the 
same  ancestry  as  the  Jersey.  The  people  of  Guernsey 
adopted  plans  for  keeping  out  foreign  cattle,  similar  to  those 
of  Jersey.  The  earlier  Guernsey  cattle  show  less  careful 
breeding,  however,  and,  as  a  whole,  have  not  been  selected 
and  improved  as  much  as  those  on  Jersey.  Guernsey  is  a  tri- 
angular, hilly  island,  of  about  15,500  acres  in  area,  and  sup- 
ports a  population  of  perhaps  45,000  people.  The  climate 
is  balmy  and  healthful.  The  people  make  a  specialty  of 
flowers,  vegetables,  and  cattle.  The  island  of  Alderney  is 
officially  a  part  of  Guernsey,  and  the  cattle  on  this  island 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


279 


are  the  same  as  the  Guernseys,  being  so  regarded  by  Guern- 
sey and  American  breeders.  In  early  days,  though  not  at 
present,  all  the  cattle  from  the  Channel  Islands  in  England 
and  America  were  called  Alderneys.  These  cattle  were  first 
introduced  to  America,  it  is  thought,  in  1830. 

The  characteristics  of  Guernsey  cattle  are  very  compar- 
able with  the  Jersey.  The  two  breeds  are  certainly  closely 
related  in  their  origin.  The  Guernseys  are  somewhat  larger, 
than  the  Jerseys,  standard  weights  being  1,600  pounds  for 
the  mature  bulls  and  1,100  pounds  for  the  cows.  The  color 


Figure   112. — Guernsey  bull   Langwater  Advocate.     Photograph  from  Lang- 
water  Farm,  North  Easton,  Mass. 

is  usually  yellow  or  red  fawn,  although  white  spots  are  very 
common,  some  of  the  most  noted  animals  of  the  breed  show- 
ing considerable  white.  The  face  is  somewhat  straighter 
than  with  the  Jersey,  and  a  very  light  creamy  or  '  'mealy " 
ring  of  hair  extends  around  the  muzzle  and  about  the  eyes. 
A  flesh-colored  muzzle  is  preferred  by  breeders,  a  dark  slate 
color  being  decidedly  unpopular.  Guernseys  are  often  plain 
of  head  and  rough  of  shoulder,  and  lack  the  beautiful  front 


280 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


udder  development  so  often  found  on  the  Island  Jerseys. 
These  cattle  are  noted  for  the  yellow  skin  and  secretions, 
the  milk  being  especially  high  in  color.  Guernseys  are 
usually  of  a  quiet  disposition,  and  the  bulls  are  perhaps 
rather  less  nervous  than  are  Jersey  males. 

The  milk  of  the  Guernsey  from  the  standpoint  of  quality 
and  butter-fat  production  is  unsurpassed.  The  milk  has  a 
natural  rich  yellow  color,  and  tests  5  per  cent  or  better  in 
butter-fat.  The  cows  make  surprisingly  high  yields  of  milk, 


Figure    113. — Guernsey    cow,    Langwater    Phyllis.     Owned    by    F.    L.    Ames, 
Langwater  Farms,  Massachusetts.     Photograph  from  Mr.  Ames. 

and  some  10,000  cows  officially  tested,  up  to  December, 
1920,  showed  an  average  production  of  9,068  pounds,  con- 
taining 454  pounds  of  fat.  Great  individual  records  have 
been  made,  the  leading  one  in  milk  production  being  that  of 
Murne  Cowan  of  24,008  pounds  for  a  year,  ending  in  1915, 
while  Countess  Prue  secured  the  lead  in  butter-fat  produc- 
tion, by  producing  1,103.28  pounds  during  a  year  ending 
in  1921.  A  wonderful  two-year  record  was  made  by  Kath- 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  281 

erine's  Trixie,  in  a  yield  of  18,945.7  pounds  of  milk,  contain- 
ing 791.48  pounds  of  fat.  Among  the  great  butter-fat 
producing  Guernseys  are  Murne  Cowan  with  a  yearly  record 
of  1,098  pounds,  May  Rilma,  1,073  pounds,  Nella  Jay  4th, 
1,019  pounds  and  Langwater  Nancy,  1,012  pounds. 

The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  the  first  breed 
association  to  establish  what  are  known  as  official  tests  for 
milk  and  butter  production,  conducted  by  disinterested 
experiment  station  or  agricultural  college  employees.  Since 
the  Club  began  this  work,  the  Guernsey  has  made  a  remark- 
able showing.  Some  of  the  largest  butter-fat  records  made 
by  cows  of  any  breed  have  come  from  the  Guernsey. 

The  prices  paid  for  Guernsey  cattle  average  fairly  high, 
compared  with  those  of  other  breeds.  In  1918  the  average 
price  of  1,318  head  sold  at  public  auction  was  $330,  while 
the  average  of  2,464  head  sold  in  1920  was  $508.  On  May 
13,  1921,  at  the  Eastern  Guernsey  Breeders'  Association 
sale  56  head  brought  an  average  of  $1,087.  Some  very  high 
prices  have  been  paid  for  individuals,  one  two-months-old 
bull  calf,  Florham  Leader,  selling  for  $25,000. 

The  distribution  of  the  Guernsey  is  not  so  extensive  as 
either  Jersey  or  Holstein-Friesian.  Wisconsin  is  the  leading 
state  in  promoting  Guernseys,  while  the  Middle  Atlantic 
states,  New  England,  and  the  North  Central  states  largely 
furnish  the  American  support  of  the  breed.  The  American 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  with  headquarters  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, is  the  official  promoter  of  the  breed,  and  there  are  also 
state  and  local  Guernsey  clubs. 

The  Ayrshire  is  a  Scotch  breed  that  originated  in  the 
region  Robert  Burns  has  made  famous,  the  county  of  Ayr 
in  southwest  Scotland.  It  has  rather  a  cold,  damp  climate 
in  winter,  but  there  is  good  grazing  in  summer.  Except 
near  the  sea,  the  country  is  more  or  less  hilly.  The  Ayrshire 
is  a  dairy  breed,  and  one  of  the  youngest  of  the  prominent 
breeds.  Cattle  were  taken  to  the  Ayrshire  country  from 


282  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

various  places,  for  Shorthorn,  Highland,  Dutch,  Guernsey, 
Devon,  and  Hereford  cattle  are  said  to  have  been  owned 
by  the  farmers  of  that  region.  From  the  mingling  of  color 
of  these  breeds  we  get  the  red,  brown,  and  white  markings 
that  are  features  of  the  Ayrshire.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  there  were  cows  in  southwest  Scotland 
that  were  famous  milkers,  and  by  offering  prizes  for  compe- 
tition, the  Scotch  people  have  still  more  encouraged  large 
milk  production.'  Ayrshires  were  first  imported  to  America 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 


Figure  114. — Three  beautiful  Ayrshire  cows  owned  by  Arthur  H.  Sagendorph 
of  Massachusetts.     Photograph  from  American  Agriculturist. 

Characteristics  of  the  Ayrshire.  The  mature  bull  should 
weigh  about  1,500  pounds,  and  the  cow  about  1,100.  The 
color  is  red  and  white  or  brown  and  white,  with  white  most 
abundant  in  recent  years.  The  head  is  one  of  the  striking 
features  of  the  breed,  with  its  rather  long,  large  and  erect 
horns.  While  a  true  dairy  breed,  the  Ayrshire  inclines  to 
be  a  trifle  fleshy,  with  more  thickness  over  the  withers,  along 
the  back,  and  about  the  thighs  than  in  case  of  the  Jersey  or 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


283 


Guernsey.  Some  of  the  bulls  are  too  beefy  for  the  best  dairy 
form,  but  there  are  many  cows  that  show  beautiful  dairy 
type.  No  other  breed  has  such  a  uniformly  well-developed 
udder  as  the  Ayrshire,  the  fore  part  being  much  extended, 
and  the  rear  udder  carried  well  up  behind.  A  big  show  of 
Ayrshire  cows,  without  exception,  makes  a  most  uniform 
and  attractive  exhibit. 

The  milk  of  the  Ayrshire  is  of  standard  quality,  testing 
from  3J/2  to  4  per  cent  fat.     It  makes  excellent  cheese,  and 


Figure  115. — Ayrshire  bull  Bargenoch  Bonnie  Scotland  owned  by  John  Sherwin 
of  Ohio.      Photograph  by  the  author. 

most  of  the  famous  cheddar  cheese  of  Scotland  is  made  from 
Ayrshire  milk.  Very  fine  records  in  milk  production  have 
been  made,  a  number  of  cows  producing  over  25,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year.  The  great  record  of  25,329  pounds  of 
milk  in  a  year  was  made  by  Garclaugh  May  Mischief,  while 
Lily  of  Willowmoor,  one  of  the  great  cows  of  the  breed,  in 
five  years  produced  a  total  of  84,991  pounds  of  milk,  an 
average  of  nearly  17,000  pounds  a  year.  A  considerable 


284  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

number  of  excellent  records  in  milk  fat  production  have  been 
made,  with  Lily  of  Willowmoor  holding  high  rank  with  955 J^ 
pounds  to  her  credit  in  a  year. 

The  distribution  of  Ayrshire  cattle  in  America  is  largely 
in  the  northeastern  states  and  in  Canada,  where  many 
excellent  herds  are  found.  A  few  herds  are  found  here  and 
there  in  the  western  states,  as  far  as  the  Pacific  slope,  but 
the  Ayrshire  is  not  popular  in  the  West.  These  cattle  are 
hardy  and  do  well  in  the  more  northern  climates. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  originated  in  Switzerland.  In  color 
they  are  usually  a  dark  brown,  with  lighter  or  cream-colored 


Figure  116. — Brown  Swiss  cow  McAlpine,  a  noted  prize  winner  owned  by  E.  M. 
Barton  of  Illinois.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

hair  about  the  muzzle  and  along  the  top  of  the  back.  They 
incline  to  be  heavy  of  head  and  neck,  and  coarse-boned;  are 
likely  to  be  somewhat  fleshy,  and  often  have  rather  meaty 
thighs.  The  cows  produce  a  very  good  grade  of  milk,  and 
some  very  excellent  records  have  been  made  by  Brown  Swiss 
cows,  College  Bravura  2nd  having  produced  19,460  pounds 
in  a  year,  containing  798  pounds  of  fat.  While  they  often 
impress  one  as  dual-purpose  cattle,  the  association  promo t- 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  285 

ing  them  has  officially  declared  the  Brown  Swiss  to  be  a 
dairy  breed.  These  cattle  are  not  popular  in  America,  and 
but  few  herds  are  found  in  any  part  of  the  country,  these 
being  mostly  confined  to  New  York  and  the  Middle  West. 

The  Dutch  Belted  breed  of  cattle  was  developed  in  Hol- 
land. It  is  of  the  dairy  type,  and  is  noted  for  its  black  color, 
marked  off  by  a  white  stripe  or  blanket  of  varying  width 
which  extends  entirely  around  the  body  between  the  hips 
and  shoulders.  It  has  not  made  much  of  a  reputation  for 
milk  or  butter-fat  production,  and,  so  far  as  public  evidence 
goes,  it  is  one  of  the  poorest  dairy  breeds.  There  are  very 
few  herds  in  America,  and  they  attract  more  attention  from 
their  peculiar  markings  than  for  actual  merit. 

The  French  Canadian  is  a  breed  that  has  had  special 
development  for  200  years  or  so  in  Quebec,  Canada.  These 
cattle  are  black  or  very  dark  fawn  in  color,  and  probably  had 
their  origin  in  France,  from  the  same  sources  as  the  Channel 
Island  cattle.  This  is  one  of  the  small  breeds,  the  mature 
cow  weighing  about  700  pounds.  French  Canadian  milk 
tests  slightly  above  4  per  cent  in  fat.  Some  large  milk 
records  are  reported  from  Canada,  but  the  specimens  of  the 
breed  to  be  found  in  the  United  States  do  not  seem  to  be 
important  producers.  It  is  regarded  as  a  very  hardy  breed. 
There  are  few  herds  in  the  United  States,  these  being  located 
in  the  northeastern  portion,  though  especially  in  New  York. 

The  Kerry  is  an  Irish  breed  that  has  long  been  bred  in 
Ireland.  It  is  black  in  color,  though  white  sometimes  occurs 
about  the  udder  of  the  cow.  It  is  of  small  size,  and  will 
exist  where  most  breeds  would  starve,  hence  it  is  the  poor 
man's  cow  of  Ireland.  It  is  strictly  a  dairy  type,  and  pro- 
duces an  excellent  milk,  testing  about  4  per  cent  fat.  Some  of 
the  cows  give  a  large  yield  of  milk,  considering  their  size. 
Milk  records  in  Ireland  supervised  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  show  yields  in  a  year  up  to  8,124  pounds.  There 
are  but  few  Kerries  in  America. 


286  A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

The  Dexter  is  another  Irish  breed,  of  uncertain  ancestry 
but  closely  related  to  the  Kerry.  These  cattle  may  be  black 
or  red  in  color,  and  are  the  smallest  breed  found  in  America. 
Many  of  the  mature  bulls  and  cows  stand  only  36  to  40 
inches  high.  The  cows  often  produce  excellent  yields  of 
milk,  testing  above  4  per  cent  fat.  Cases  are  on  record 
where  cows  of  this  breed  weighed  around  500  pounds  and 
produced  in  a  year  over  8,000  pounds  of  milk.  These  dimin- 
utive cattle  may  never  be  popular  for  general  dairying  in 
America,  but  they  will  grow  in  favor  for  family  use. 

The  Devon  is  red  in  color,  and  originated  in  Devon, 
southwest  England.  It  is  a  breed  that  is  found  to  be  either 
beefy  or  dual-purpose  in  form.  It  is  a  very  old  breed,  and 
was  brought  to  America  by  the  early  settlers  of  this  country. 
Devons  are  not  popular,  and  but  few  herds  exist.  It  has 
lost  ground  in  this  country  while  other  breeds  have  gained. 

Recently,  however,  the  few  members  of  the  American 
Devon  Cattle  Club  have  attempted  to  establish  official  test- 
ing of  Devons,  and  to  demonstrate  that  they  have  cows  of 
real  merit  in  milk  and  butter-fat  production  in  this  dual- 
purpose  breed.  This  awakening  interest  is  largely  among 
eastern  breeders,  in  a  section  where  dairy  production  is  of  much 
greater  interest  to  cattlemen  than  is  the  growing  of  beef. 

The  Red  Polled,  as  its  name  shows,  is  red,  and  without 
horns.  The  breed  originated  in  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  coun- 
ties in  eastern  England.  Red  mulley  cattle  have  been  known 
in  America  since  the  early  settlement  of  the  country,  but  the 
first  importation  of  the  breed  recorded  was  in  1873.  These 
cattle  are  regarded  good  for  both  beef  and  milk  production. 
The  cows  make  a  very  good  grade  of  milk,  but,  as  a  rule,  are 
not  heavy  producers,  although  some  excellent  milk  records 
have  been  made.  The  cow  Jean  DuLuth  Beauty  produced 
20,280  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year,  containing  89  lJ/£  pounds  of 
fat.  Red  Polled  cattle  are  most  common  in  the  Middle 
Western  states,  especially  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin. 


BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  287 

SOME  COMMON  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO  DAIRY    CATTLE 

1.  What  did  the  people  of  Jersey  do  to  protect  the  purity  of  their  cattle? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  Island  and  American  type  Jerseys? 

3.  How  productive  is  the  Jersey  in  milk  and  butter-fat? 

4.  How  large  are  Holstein-Friesian  cattle? 

5.  What  would  be  average  Holstein-Friesian  milk  yields,  and  how  do 

these  compare  with  heavy  records  made? 

6.  How  adaptable  is  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  to  American  con- 

ditions?    Where  is  it  most  abundant? 

7.  In  what  respects  do  Guernseys  and  Jerseys  resemble  each  other? 

8.  How  do  Guernseys  rank  in  official  milk  tests? 

9.  In  what  section  of  the  United  States  are  Guernseys  most  popular? 

10.  What  is  the  color  of  the  Ayrshire? 

11.  Why  is  Lily  of  Willowmoor  a  noted  cow? 

12.  Are  Brown  Swiss  dairy  or  dual-purpose  type? 

13.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  Kerry  and  the  Dexter? 

SOME  INSTRUCTIVE  LABORATORY  WORK 

14.  A  comparative  study  of  two  or  more  dairy  herds  of  different 

breeds. 

15.  Making  a  township  or  county  map  of  pure-bred  herds. 

16.  Getting  records  of  production  from  different  herds. 

17.  Studying  lines  of  breeding  in  one  or  more  herds. 

18.  Investigating  the  use  of  pure-bred  sires  in  grade  herds. 

19.  Locating  the  best  bred  sire  in  the  community. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  following  discussion  of  judging  dairy  cattle  is  based 
on  the  scale  of  points  in  the  score  card  in  this  chapter.  This 
is  general  in  its  character,  and  is  suited  to  the  dairy  cow 
irrespective  of  breed.  Each  of  the  national  breed  associa- 
tions promoting  dairy  cattle  has  its  official  standard  for 


Figure  117. — Holstein-Friesian  cow  Maplecrest  Pontiac  Application,  a  fine 
example  of  dairy  type.  She  has  a  record  of  1,075  pounds  of  butter-fat 
in  365  days.  Photograph  from  American  Agriculturist. 

each  sex,  and  this  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  breed 
study.  The  contents  of  this  chapter  are  in  harmony  with 
the  principles  and  practices  involved  in  judging,  and  so 
should  be  a  fitting  introduction  to  score  card  work  with 
the  breeds. 

The  size  of  the  dairy  animal  is  not  material,  unless  in  the 
case  of  a  breed  that  has  certain  size  requirements.     Among 

288 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


289 


grade  animals  may  be  found  valuable  producers  at  wide 
ranges  of  size.  There  are  large  producers  in  each  breed,  from 
the  little  Dexter,  weighing  500  pounds,  up  to  the  Holstein, 
weighing  1,800.  For  this  reason,  size  is  of  minor  importance, 
if  producing  capacity  and  proper  conformation  exist. 

The  general  form  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  somewhat 
wedge-shaped,  often  referred  to  as  the  "triple  wedge."  This 
shape  really  means  a  narrowness  in  front  and  heaviness  be- 


Figure   118. — Jersey  bull,   Fontaines  Raleigh.     Photograph  from  the  owner, 
C.  I.  Hudson  of  New  York. 

hind.  As  one  looks  at  a  typical  dairy  cow  from  one  side, 
the  front  part  seems  less  deep  than  that  behind.  If  a  stick 
of  ample  length  were  laid  along  the  back,  and  another  were 
placed  in  a  similar  position  against  the  under  side  of  the 
body,  they  would  meet  at  a  common  point  in  front,  if  suf- 
ficiently extended.  Thus  we  see  one  of  the  wedge  features. 
If  one  stands  in  front  and  looks  towards  the  rear  of  the  ani- 
mal, it  will  be  noticed  that  the  thickness  through  the  front 
quarter  at  the  shoulder  is  less  than  that  of  the  hind  quarter 
10 


290  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

at  the  hips  or  just  below.  This  view  shows  a  second  wedge 
conformation.  The  third  wedge  is  seen  by  standing  at  the 
shoulder  and  looking  down  over  the  withers  and  ribs.  From 
the  withers  the  ribs  gradually  widen  out  to  form  a  notice- 
able wedge  in  the  upper  half  of  the  body.  Thus  we  may 
see  the  three  wedges  in  the  conformation  of  the  dairy  cow. 

The  general  form  of  the  dairy  bull  shows  much  less  of 
the  wedge  shape  than  the  cow.  The  best  bulls,  however, 
have  a  certain  amount  of  thinness  at  the  withers,  and  the 
body  is  long  and  muscular.  The  depth  at  the  hind  quarter 
is  much  the  same  as  at  the  fore  quarter,  although  the  males 
are  frequently  somewhat  high  at  the  rear  flanks.  While  the 
thighs,  from  a  side  view,  appear  muscular,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  cow,  from  the  rear  they  should  be  thin  and  widely 
and  highly  separated.  A  beefy  appearance  of  the  thigh  in 
this  type  is  most  undesirable. 

Quality  in  dairy  cattle  has  certain  features  in  common 
with  the  beef  type,  such  as  fineness  of  hair  and  bone  and 
mellowness  of  skin.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  thickness 
and  length  of  the  coat  of  hair,  which  is  usually  much  shorter 
and  thinner  on  dairy  than  on  beef  cattle.  The  dairy  ani- 
mal, as  a  rule,  has  the  thinner  and  more  elastic  hide  of  the 
two.  Those  cattle  that  are  of  Jersey  or  Guernsey  blood  have 
very  mellow,  most  elastic  hides,  that  sometimes  resemble  a 
mole  skin  in  their  soft,  pliable  nature.  Yellow  color  in  the 
ears,  skin,  and  horns  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  quality,  and 
indicates  the  production  of  milk  rich  in  color.  The  Guernsey 
Cattle  Club  places  such  a  high  value  on  the  color  of  the  secre- 
tions, that  15  points  are  allowed  this  feature  in  their  scale 
of  points. 

The  temperament  of  the  dairy  animal  should  show  plenty 
of  nervous  force.  This  does  not  mean  an  excitable  disposi- 
tion, but  lively  rather  than  phlegmatic.  Dairy  bulls  usually 
show  plenty  of  nervous  force,  as  compared  with  beef  stock. 
The  cow  is  constituted  to  produce  milk,  a  task  which  requires 


JUDGING  DAIRY   CATTLE 


291 


a  large  amount  of  vitality  and  nervous  energy.  Indications 
of  the  temperament  are  easily  seen  in  the  prominence  and 
character  of  expression  of  the  eye.  Some  claims  have  been 
made  that  prominence  of  the  spine  indicates  a  large  spinal 
cord  and  active  brain,  being  a  further  indication  of  nervous 
force.  There  is  very  little  information  on  this  subject,  how- 
ever, that  will  justify  drawing  conclusions. 

In  judging  dairy  cattle,  further  than  stated,  there  are 
certain  things  of  importance  to  be  considered  that  especially 
apply  to  this  type,  as  set  forth  in  the  following  score  card 
for  a  cow  with  the  mammary  parts  well  developed : 

A  SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 


Scale  of  points 

Perfect 
score 

Stu- 
dent's 
score 

Cor- 
rected 
score 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:    19  Points. 
SIZE,  large,  medium,  or  small  
FORM,  wedge  shape  from  front,  side,  and  top;  mus- 
cular        

8 

QUALITY,  hair  fine,  silky;  skin  mellow,  loose;  bone 

8 

TEMPERAMENT,  active,  showing  nervous  force  
HEAD  AND  NECK:    7  Points. 
MUZZLE,  broad;  face  lean,  shapely  
EYES,  prominent,  bright;  forehead  broad  
EARS,  medium  size,  not  coarse  
NECK,  somewhat  long,  not  thick,  well  placed;  clean  at 
throat;  light  dewlap  
FORE  QUARTERS:    9  Points. 
WITHERS   thin  and  lean 

3 

2 
2 
1 

2 
3 

SHOULDERS,  light,  oblique  
LEGS,  straight,  short;  shank  fine  
BODY:    20  Points. 
CHEST,  deep,  girth  large;  crops  not  much  depressed. 
BACK,  lean,  strong,  well  defined  
LOIN,  broad,  long  level  
RIBS,  long,  well  sprung   below,  giving  large  capacity, 
with  low  flanks  
HIND  QUARTERS:    13  Points. 
HIPS,  wide  apart,  not  fleshy  

4   ' 

2 

6 
4 
4 

6 
1 

RUMP,  broad,  long,  not  droopy;  pin  bones  wide  apart 
TAIL,  long,  fine;  good  switch  
THIGHS,  thin,  long,  wide  apart  
LEGS,  straight,  short,  wide  apart;  shanks  fine  
MAMMARY  DEVELOPMENT:    32  Points. 
UDDER,  large,  carried  well  in  front  along  the  belly, 
and  high  up  behind;  thick,  mellow;  quarters  even 
not  much  grooved  between  
TEATS,  3  to  4  inches  long,  well  placed;  an  easy  milker 
MILK  VEINS,  large,  long,  tortuous  or  winding,  enter- 
ing large  wells  

1 
4 

2 

20 
4 

8 

Total  points  

100 

292  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  head  should  be  lean  and  shapely.  In  general,  the 
wide  muzzle,  short  face,  strong  jaw,  prominent  eye,  and 
broad  forehead  are  desired.  In  most  cases,  a  "dished"  face 
is  popular.  This  feature  is  a  slight  depression  of  the  head  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  forehead  and  between  the  eyes.  Yet 
all  breeds  do  not  have  it.  The  dish-face  is  very  character- 
istic of  the  Jersey,  but  is  not  so  pronounced  in  the  Holstein- 
Friesian.  A  broad  muzzle,  short  face,  and  strong,  wide  jaw, 


Figure  119.— The  points  of  the  dairy  cow,  as  reproduced  upon  Ormsby  Jane 
Segis  Aaggie  150,943,  champion  Holstein-Friesian  cow.  As  a  senior 
four-year-old  she  has  a  seven-day  record  of  44.4  Ibs.  of  butter,  (Re- 
produced from  "Judging  Farm  Animals",  by  the  author.) 

indicate  a  vigorous  feeder.  The  eye  should  be  prominent 
yet  show  a  mild  disposition,  as  indicated  by  clearness  of  the 
whites  and  quietness  of  expression.  Dairy  bulls  often  have 
eyes  that  indicate  very  clearly  their  character.  The  ears 
should  be  medium  of  size  and  thin  of  texture,  and  be  neatly 
attached  to  the  head.  A  yellow  or  orange  color  within  the 
ear  is  desirable.  The  horns,  when  present,  should  show  re- 
finement, and  not  be  large  and  heavy  at  the  union  with  the 


JUDGING   DAIRY   CATTLE  293 

head.  A  small  horn  is  preferred  on  the  females,  and  some 
of  the  best  known  dairy  sires  have  had  rather  small  horns. 
A  thin,  muscular,  somewhat  long  neck  on  the  cow,  and  a 
strong,  heavily-muscled,  rather  crested  neck  on  the  males, 
are  desirable.  When  the  neck  blends  well  with  the  head, 
there  is  no  unnatural  fullness  at  the  throat.  The  union  of 
the  neck  with  the  shoulders  should  also  be  smooth.  Dairy 
animals  sometimes  have  a  heavy  dewlap,  which,  being 
an  evidence  of  coarseness,  is  rather  objectionable. 

The  fore  quarters  of  the  dairy  animal  incline  to  be  some- 
what prominent  and  are  often  rough.  This  appearance  is 
in  most  cases  due  to  the  lack  of  covering  of  flesh.  The 
smoothness  of  the  .shoulder  found  in  the  beef  animal  is  not 
to  be  expected  with  the  dairy  type,  but  the  blades  should 
extend  well  into  the  back  and  not  be  coarse.  The  withers 
above  the  shoulders  should  be  lean  and  somewhat  sharp.  In 
fact,  dairy  cattle  judges  place  a  premium  on  thin,  sharp 
withers.  Many  great-producing  cows,  however,  have  some 
thickness  or  fleshiness  at  this  point.  Occasionally,  one  will 
find  dairy  cows  with  the  shoulder  points  noticeably  separ- 
ated from  the  body.  This  characteristic  is  what  is  called  a 
spread  shoulder,  and  shows  a  weakness  of  the  muscular 
attachment.  Such  a  cow  has  an  undesirable  appearance, 
but  otherwise  is  not  seriously  affected. 

The  body  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  deep  at  the  chest, 
yet  not  thick.  As  one  views  the  animal  from  one  side,  the 
depth  from  the  top  of  withers  to  bottom  of  the  chest  should 
be  much  greater  than  the  length  of  leg.  From  a  front  view, 
the  chest  appears  somewhat  narrow.  Not  much  depression 
back  of  the  shoulders  below  the  withers,  at  the  point  known 
as  the  "crops,"  is  desired,  for  this  indicates  weakness  in 
heart  girth.  The  same  criticism  will  apply  at  the  fore  flank. 
The  back  should  be  well  and  strongly  carried,  with  the  spine 
easily  seen  above  and  beyond  the  shoulders.  A  strongly 
arched  rib  will  give  a  wide  back  and  a  muscular  loin,  which 


294 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


are  most  desirable,  while  plenty  of  additional  length  of  rib 
will  mean  ample  digestive  capacity.  In  examining  the  body 
with  the  hands,  one  should  be  able  to  place  two  fingers  held 
side  by  side  easily  between  the  last  ribs  of  mature  dairy 
cattle.  The  opinion  prevails,  that  with  dairy  animals  there 
should  be  length  of  body  with  the  ribs  less  closely  placed 
together  than  is  the  case  with  beef  cattle.  Consequently, 
a  body  of  considerable  length  meets  with  favor.  Some 
judges  prefer  the  hind  flank  to  be  somewhat  high,  but  this 


Figure  120. — Judging  dairy  cattle.     Viewing  top  lines  from  the  rear, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


quality  is  associated  with  lack  of  depth  of  body,  signifying 
a  deficient  digestive  capacity. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  dairy  animal  have  been  the  cause 
of  much  discussion.  The  hips  of  the  cows  should  be  some- 
what prominent  and  lean.  With  the  males,  less  prominence 
of  hip  is  desired.  In  the  case  of  each  sex,  much  length  and 
breadth,  with  level  carriage  of  rump,  is  wanted.  Below  this 
part,  the  thighs,  as  viewed  from  one  side,  should  appear 
muscular  and  long.  From  the  rear  view,  the  thighs  should 
seem  thin  and  placed  wide  apart,  giving  ample  room  between 
for  a  large  udder.  We  sometimes  say  that  the  thighs  are 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


295 


incurving,  meaning  that  from  the  point  of  the  rump,  or 
pin  bone,  each  thigh  curves  slightly  for  a  distance  towards 
the  body  before  curving  outward  to  form  the  top  of  the 
hock.  The  tail  should  have  a  neat  placing  on  the  body,  and 
its  fleshy  part  should  hang  in  a  perpendicular  position  to  the 
hocks,  showing  considerable  space  between  it  and  the  thigh 
as  viewed  from  one  side.  A  beefy  character  of  any  part  of 
the  hind  quarter  is  very  undesirable.  The  tendency  is  to 
show  fleshiness  at  the  top  of  the  rump  over  the  hips  and 
pin  bones  and  on  the  thighs.  A  straight,  wide  carriage  of 

the  legs  is  most  essential,  as 
has  already  been  explained  and 
as  will  be  brought  out  further 
on  in  relationship  to  the  udder. 
The  mammary  develop- 
ment of  the  cow  includes  the 
udder,  teats,  and  milk  veins 
and  wells.  It  is  necessary  to 
examine  this  part  carefully 
with  both  eye  and  hand. 

The  udder  consists  of  two 
large  glands  suspended  between 
the  legs.  One  gland  is  the  right 
half  of  the  udder,  and  the 
other  the  left.  Each  gland  is  also  divided  into  two  halves, 
known  as  quarters.  As  we  view  the  udder  at  one  side,  we 
see  the  front  and  hind  quarters  of  the  gland.  The  form  of 
udder  that  is  most  approved  follows  the  line  of  a  circle  in 
part,  although  we  look  for  the  rear  portion  to  be  carried  up 
high  beyond  the  line  of  the  circle,  and  the  fore  part  to  extend 
well  along  under  the  belly,  on  a  uniform  level.  These  udder 
lines  above  and  below  extend  beyond  the  circle.  Viewed 
from  the  rear,  the  udder  should  appear  thick,  and  should 
occupy  completely  the  space  between  the  thighs,  and  extend 
up  high  along  the  thigh.  Examination  with  the  hand  should 


Figure  121. — Judging  dairy  cattle. 
Estimating  the  length  of  rump. 
Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 


296 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


show  no  deep  separation  or  division  between  the  glands  or 
quarters,  but  only  slight  grooves.     As  a  rule,  the  hind  udder 


Figure  122. — Judging  dairy  cattle.  Two  Jersey  cows,  the  one  on  the  left 
showing  depth  of  body  and  constitution,  the  one  on  the  right  showing  a 
short  rib  and  poor  feeding  capacity.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

is  somewhat  narrower  than  the  fore  udder,  due  to  the  limited 
space  between  the  thighs.     Thus  one  may  see  the  importance 


Figure  123. — Four  hind  end  presentations  of  dairy  cows,  showing  good  and 
bad  placings  of  the  legs.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

of  having  the  thighs  widely  separated  to  provide  room  for 
the  udder. 

The  teats  should  be  of  convenient  size  for  grasping  by  the 


JUDGING  DAIRY   CATTLE 


297 


average-sized  hand,  and  a  length  of  three  to  four  inches  is 
satisfactory.  They  should  be  placed  at  a  fair  distance 
apart,  to  permit  of  easy  milking,  without  having  the  hands 
in  the  way  of  each  other.  The  judge  should  examine  each 
teat  carefully,  and  see  that  it  milks  without  difficulty, 
and  is  all  right.  The  form  of  the  udder  is  rather  variable. 
The  most  common  weakness  is  an  inferior  front  develop- 


Figure  124. — A  beautiful  udder  on  a  great  show  cow  of  dairy  type — Bosnian's 
Anna,  owned  by  C.  I.  Hudson  of  New  York.     Photograph  from  F.  R. 
Marshall. 

ment,  with  the  teats  of  this  part  placed  much  higher  than 
those  behind.  The  smaller  the  fore  udder  in  comparison 
with  the  hind  part,  the  less  its  producing  capacity. 

With  age,  the  udder  often  becomes  pendant;  that  is, 
hangs  low  down.  This  feature  is  especially  characteristic 
of  those  cows  that  become  heavy  milk-producers.  In  act- 
ing as  a  judge  in  the  show  ring,  one  may  find  it  desirable  to 
request  that  certain  cows  be  milked.  Some  cows  have  meaty 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


udders  of  quite  limited  capacity,  and  to  make  a  fair  study 
of  this  gland,  one  should  see  it  both  full  and  empty.  When 
empty,  the  glands  should  be  considerably  shrunken,  and, 
when  pressed  by  the  hands,  should  feel  uniformly  mellow 
and  smooth  to  the  touch.  The  judge  should  take  the  udder 
in  his  hands  and  press  it  between  the  palms,  and  examine 
it  generally  as  to  its  condition,  noting  whether  smooth  of 
tissue,  or  if  lumps  or  knots  occur.  Again,  examination  may 
show  imperfect  quarters  or  defective  teats. 

The  milk  veins  are  located  along  on  the  belly  from  the 
udder  forward.  Usually  there  is 
one  vein  on  each  side,  and  some- 
times a  shorter  one  between. 
Through  these  veins  the  blood 
passes  from  the  udder  to  the 
heart.  A  side  view  of  the  cow 
shows  something  of  the  vein 
on  that  side.  On  young  cows 
it  is  smaller  and  less  prominent 
than  on  old  ones.  It  varies  in 
size,  length,  and  form.  To 
examine  it  carefully,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  bend  over  enough  to 
look  up  beneath  the  body  and 
see  the  whole  milk-vein  system.  Usually  the  vein  is  about 
five  eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  and,  after  extending  along 
the  belly  half  way  or  so  from  udder  to  fore  legs,  dis- 
appears through  a  hole  in  the  belly  wall,  known  as  the  "milk 
well."  Sometimes  the  veins  are  very  large  and  long,  and 
have  a  more  or  less  tortuous,  or  serpentine,  course.  The 
larger  and  longer  the  veins,  the  greater  the  cow  as  a  milker. 
Sometimes  we  find  the  belly  immediately  in  front  of  the 
udder  covered  with  small  veins,  and  occasionally  they  also 
occur  on  the  udder.  All  these  small  veins  are  indications 
that  the  cow  is  more  than  an  average  milk-producer. 


Figure  125. — Judging  dairy  cat- 
tle. A  common  type  of  poor 
udder,  especially  defective  in 
front.  Photograph  by  the 
author. 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


299 


Figure     126. — Judging  dairy  cattle.     Locating  the  milk  well, 
by  the  author. 


Photograph 


The  milk  wells  vary  in  size,  from  those  so  small  that 
they  are  not  at  once  discovered  to  those  so  large  that  the  end 
of  the  finger  can  be  placed  therein.  Small  wells  are 
associated  with  similarly  small  veins,  and  together  they 
limit  the  supply  of  blood  passing;  through  the  udder  and 
thus  affect  milk  production. 

IN  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

1.  How  much  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  size? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  triple  wedge  form? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  evidences  of  quality? 

4.  How  is  dairy  temperament  indicated? 

5.  What  three  features  of  mammary  development  are  emphasized,  and 

how  many  points  do  they  total  in  the  scale  of  points? 

6.  Should  a  "dished"  face  be  sought  in  the  Hplstein-Friesian? 

7.  Are  the  withers  important  factors  in  conformation?   If  so,  how? 

8.  Wrould  you  place  a  premium  on  length  of  body?     If  so,  why? 

9.  Why  are  thick  thighs  objectionable? 

10.  What  type  of  udder  should  be  sought? 

DESIRABLE  OBSERVATIONS  IN  SOME  HERD 

11.  The  relationship  of  size  to  production. 

12.  The  relationship  of  color  of  skin  and  horn  to  quality  of  milk. 

13.  The  relationship  of  form  to  production. 

14.  A  comparative  study  of  types  of  udders. 

15.  A  score  card  study  of  "the  best  cow." 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION 

The  dairy  cow  as  a  producer  of  food  occupies  a  very  high 
place  in  animal  economy.  As  a  producer  of  meat  she  is  of 
secondary  importance,  but  her  milk  furnishes  the  most  easily 
digested  food  and,  under  fair  conditions,  she  returns  in  it 
a  pound  of  nutriment  at  less  cost  than  comes  from  an  equal 


Figure  127. — The  dairy  cow  as  a  producer  of  food.     This  cow  made  nearly 
20,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

amount  of  food  from  beef  cattle,  sheep,  or  swine.  This  fact 
has  been  brought  out  in  an  interesting  way  by  Dr.  C.  H. 
Eckles,  in  his  feeding  experiments  at  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station.*  A  comparison  was  made  of  the  milk 
produced  by  a  Holstein-Friesian  cow  in  a  year  and  the  car- 
cass of  a  fat  steer  weighing  1,250  pounds.  The  cow  gave 

*Darry  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  1911. 

300 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION         301 

a  yield  of  18,405  pounds  of  milk,  which  contained  2,218 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  all  of  which  was  digestible.  Deduct- 
ing 56  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  steer's  carcass,  which 
was  water,  there  was  left  548  pounds  of  dry  matter,  which 
included  a  considerable  part  that  was  not  edible,  such  as 
hair,  hide,  bones,  and  tendons.  "The  cow,"  writes  Dr. 
Eckles,  "produced  proteids  sufficient  for  more  than  three 
steers;  nearly  fat  enough  for  two,  ash  enough  to  build  the 
skeleton  for  three,  and  in  addition  produced  920  pounds  of 
milk  sugar,  worth  as  much  per  pound  for  food  as  ordinary 
sugar." 

A  comparison  of  dairy  with  beef-type  cows  in  milk  pro- 
duction under  fair  conditions  will  show  the  dairy-type  ani- 
mal to  be  much  the  more  economical  producer  of  the  two. 
Prof.  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  station  has  brought  this 
point  out  in  a  striking  experiment.  He  selected  four  types 
of  cows;  (a)  beef,  (b)  not  so  beefy,  (c)  spare,  but  lacking 
depth  of  rib,  and  (d)  dairy  type.  As  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, he  found  that  the  amount  of  dry  matter  consumed 
in  the  feed  and  the  cost  of  the  feed  for  each  pound  of  fat 
produced  steadily  decreased  from  the  beef  to  the  dairy  type. 
Here  we  have  a  striking  argument  in  behalf  of  dairy-type 
cattle  where  milk  production  is  sought. 

The  productive  cow  compared  with  the  unproductive. 
Every  herd  of  cows  shows  more  or  less  variation  in  produc- 
tion of  different  animals.  This  difference  is  due  to  various 
causes.  Each  owner  of  a  milking  herd  should,  therefore, 
keep  a  careful  record  of  the  production  of  each  cow  from 
day  to  day,  and  determine  for  himself  which  ones  are  return- 
ing a  profit,  and  which  are  not.  During  recent  years  many 
cow-testing  associations  have  been  organized,  and  herd 
owners  have  given  careful  study  to  this  subject.  Of  two 
cows  of  the  same  type,  one  may  be  a  very  profitable  pro- 
ducer, and  the  other  what  is  termed  a  "boarder,"  not  return- 
ing enough  milk  to  pay  for  her  food.  This  cow  may  be 


302 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


unproductive  for  one  or  more  reasons,  as,  for  example,  in- 
ferior ancestry  in  milk  production,  being  a  poor  feeder,  ill 
health,  age,  etc. 

The  influence  of  the  breeds  hi  milk  production  is  very 
marked.  What  may  be  termed  standard  milk  consists  in 
about  87.2%  water,  3.8  fat,  3.5  proteids,  4.8  fat  and  0.7  ash.* 
As  a  rule,  the  larger  the  yield  of  a  cow,  the  smaller  the  per 
cent  of  butter-fat  and  of  total  solids.  This  rule  will  apply 
within  a  breed.  If  we  compare  the  breeds,  on  the  basis  of 
many  thousands  of  records,  we  find  that  the  Jersey  and  the 


Figure  128. — Czarina  2nd,  a  thick  fleshed  type  of  Shorthorn  cow.  Photograph 
by  F.   H.   Haskett. 

Guernsey  produce  the  milk  richest  in  total  solids  and  butter- 
fat,  while  the  Brown  Swiss,  Ayrshire,  and  Holstein-Friesian, 
in  the  order  given,  produce  milk  with  a  smaller  amount  of 
total  solids  and  fat.  According  to  Prof.  Larsen,f  Holstein- 
Friesian  milk  consists  of  about  12.25  per  cent  of  total  solids 
and  3.48  per  cent  of  fat,  while  Jersey  milk  tests  14.87  per 
cent  of  solids  and  5.19  per  cent  of  fat.  The  fat  globules  in  the 
Holstein-Friesian  milk  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Jersey 

*Larsen's  Farm  Dairying,  1919. 
tFarm  Dairying,  1919. 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION         303 

or  the  Guernsey  and  lack  the  deep  yellow  color  of  the  latter. 
Whether  one  breed  is  more  profitable  than  another  largely 
depends  upon  the  individual  animals,  the  amount  of  milk 
produced,  and  its  cost  of  production. 

The  influence  of  age  on  milk  production  has  been  care- 
fully studied  by  various  investigators.  On  this  subject 
Eckles  states*  that  "a  dairy  cow,  on  the  average,  as  a  two- 
year-old  may  be  expected  to  produce  about  70  per  cent;  as 
a  three-year-old  around  80  per  cent;  and  as  a  four-year-old 
about  90  per  cent  of  the  milk  and  butter-fat  she  will  pro- 
duce under  the  same  treatment  when  mature. "  As  a  rule, 
we  expect  a  cow  to  be  at  her  best  from  six  to  eight  years  of 
age,  but  there  are  remarkable  records  that  have  been  made 
by  cows  well. along  in  years.  The  Jersey  cow  Pogis  Irene 
2nd,  at  18  years  of  age  produced  9,930  pounds  of  milk,  which 
would  be  an  excellent  record  for  a  Jersey  in  her  prime. 

The  influence  of  the  period  of  lactation  on  milk  produc- 
tion is  of  interest.  Under  normal  conditions  a  cow  should 
be  milked  about  ten  months,  go  dry  two,  and  produce  a 
vigorous,  healthy  calf.  The  natural  tendency  is  for  the  cow 
of  dairy  type  to  keep  up  her  milk  flow  fairly  well  for  the 
first  seven  months,  after  which  it  gradually  declines.  Prof. 
F.  W.  Woll  made  a  study  of  the  production  of  some  300 
cows  in  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1909-1911, 
and  he  reports  f  that  "the  normal  decrease  in  the  flow  of 
milk  in  well  managed  dairy  herds  is  about  5  per  cent  a  month 
during  the  second  to  seventh  month  of  the  lactation  period, 
about  10  to  12  per  cent  during  the  eighth  and  ninth  months, 
and  20  per  cent  for  the  tenth  and  subsequent  months." 

The  relationship  of  condition  of  the  cow  to  the  quality 
of  her  milk  is  very  marked.  If  the  cow  is  in  good  flesh,  she 
will  yield  more  and  richer  milk  than  if  in  thin  flesh.  It  is 
a  well  recognized  fact  to-day,  that  dairy  cows  fattened  and 
in  high  condition  when  they  come  fresh,  produce  a  milk 


*Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  1911. 
fProductive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  1915. 


304  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

abnormally  rich  in  fat.  For  this  reason,  most  persons  who 
are  engaged  in  officially  testing  their  cows,  start  them  on 
test  in  as  good  condition  as  possible;  for  the  body  fat  is 
more  or  less  milked  off  into  the  pail,  especially  during  the 
first  two  or  three  weeks.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
milk  during  this  time  will  contain  from  1  to  2  per  cent 
more  fat  than  is  usual  in  ordinary  flesh.  Eckles,  in  express- 
ing his  objection  to  seven-day  official  tests,  referring  to  those 
of  the  Holstein-Friesian  says:  "The  average  per  cent  of  fat 
for  the  breed  is  3.45,  but  many  seven-day  tests  are  now 
reported  with  a  per  cent  of  fat  over  4.50,  and  several  above 
5  per  cent." 

A  comparison  of  first  and  last  drawn  milk  shows  that 
the  first  milk  contains  a  larger  per  cent  of  water,  and  less 
total  solids  and  fat  than  the  last  drawn.  This  fact  suggests 
that,  if  one  is  to  feed  part  of  the  milk  from  a  single  cow  to 
a  calf,  it  will  be  wiser  to  feed  the  first  drawn  and  reserve  the 
last  for  family  use. 

The  influence  of  the  weather  on  milk  production  is  quite 
marked.  If  the  weather  turns  cool  and  the  cattle  are  exposed 
to  rain  in  an  unusual  degree,  the  probabilities  are  that  the 
milk  yield  will  fall  off  to  some  extent,  but  will  show  some 
increase  in  butter-fat  content.  Warm  weather  under  ordi- 
nary food  conditions  would,  therefore,  promote  milk  flow 
rather  than  do  otherwise.  If  there  is  a  drouth,  and  the 
cows  are  kept  on  pastures  that  are  badly  dried  up,  then  the 
milk  yield  may  rapidly  diminish,  unless  there  is  resort  to 
extra  feeding.  It  has  been  assumed  that  in  hot  weather  the 
biting  of  many  flies  reduces  the  milk  yield,  but  the  evidence 
on  this  point  is  lacking.  In  fact,  such  information  as  we 
have  indicates  that  flies  have  little  or  no  effect  on  milk  yield. 

The  effect  of  different  foods  on  the  flavor  and  quality  of 
milk  is  very  marked.  Cows  that  eat  wild  onions  or  garlic 
transmit  the  characteristic  flavors  of  these  to  the  milk. 
Rye  and  turnips,  unless  fed  soon  after  milking,  give  an 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION         305 

objectionable  flavor.  These  flavors  are  due  to  the  volatile 
oils  in  these  feeds,  whereby  they  impregnate  the  milk  while 
in  the  body  of  the  cow.  The  effect  of  some  feeds  is  to  pro- 
duce hard  butter-fat,  while  others  make  it  soft.  Butter 
made  from  milk  from  cows  fed  cottonseed  meal  has  a  high 
melting  point,  while  corn  meal  has  the  opposite  effect  on 
the  butter-fat,  although  not  in  any  serious  degree.  The  fat 
in  the  milk  takes  on  a  more  yellow  hue  when  the  cows  are 
turned  on  pasture  or  when  they  are  fed  carrots,  bright  green 
alfalfa  hay,  or  new  silage.  This  yellow  color  is  due  to  what 
is  known  as  carotin,  which  is  more  abundant  in  carrots  and 
green  feeds  than  elsewhere. 

The  effect  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  on  the  milk 
yield  may  be  quite  marked,  cows  responding  more  with 
some  foods  than  others.  The  yield  will  fall  off  with  the  use 
of  coarse,  dry,  unpalatable  foods,  and  increase  with  those 
of  finer  quality  that  are  succulent  and  palatable.  The  kind 
and  character  of  the  feed,  however,  can  not  materially  change 
the  quality  of  the  milk.  A  cow  fed  rye  straw,  a  very  low 
grade  food,  may  fall  off  in  her  milk  flow,  but  there  will  be 
no  essential  change  in  the  character  of  her  milk.  If  it  were 
possible  to  change  the  composition  of  milk  by  feeding,  then  the 
individuality  of  the  milk  of  the  Jersey  or  the  Ayrshire  might 
be  changed,  thereby  seriously  affecting  its  character  and  value. 

Frequency  of  milking  no  doubt  has  a  bearing  on  the 
yield.  Under  most  conditions  cows  are  milked  twice  daily. 
As  the  official  testing  of  dairy  cows  has  progressed,  however, 
the  custom  has  developed  of  milking  three  or  four  times 
daily,  as  conditions  justify.  Heavy  milkers,  such  as  Hol- 
stein-Friesians,  are  milked  at  least  three  times  and  in  many 
cases  four  times.  In  Holland  in  common  practice  the  cows 
are  usually  milked  three  times  daily.  If  there  is  the  same 
period  of  time  between  each  milking,  the  milk  will  show 
quite  uniform  tests  of  total  solids  and  butter-fat.  If,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  number  of  hours 


306 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


periods,  the  milk  will  show  the  greater  percentage  amounts 
of  solids  and  fat  in  the  shorter  interval. 

Regularity  in  milking  is  important.  The  dairy  cow,  to 
do  her  best,  should  not  only  be  fed  regularly,  but  milked 
with  equal  regularity.  Thus,  as  a  matter  of  habit,  she  will 
respond  to  the  care  of  the  milker,  and  will  give  down  without 
restraint.  Experiments  at  the  Ontario  station  showed  that 
when  the  cows  were  milked  irregularly  the  practice  some- 
what reduced  the  yield  and  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk. 

The  influence  of  the  milking  machine  on  production, 
when  properly  manipulated  and  cared  for,  may  be  very 


Figure    129. — Milking    with    the    De    Laval    cow    milker.     Photograph    from 
De  Laval  Separator  Company. 

satisfactory.  Cows  milked  by  the  machine  seem  undis- 
turbed by  its  action,  and  give  down  their  milk  as  in  ordinary 
good  hand  milking.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  watch  the 
machine  with  reasonable  care,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  cows  must 
be  stripped  by  hand  after  the  machine  has  done  its  work. 
The  most  important  factor  in  the  successful  use  of  the 
milker  is  a  competent  man,  who  has  an  intelligent  knowledge 
of  machinery  and  who  will  take  proper  care  of  it  and  see 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION         307 


Figure  130. — Hand  milk  test- 
ing machine.  Reproduced 
from  Burrell  &  Co.  catalog. 


that  it  is  always  kept  in  good  repair 
and  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

The  testing  of  milk  for  its  fat 
content  is  in  practical  application 
daily  in  thousands  of  creameries 
and  on  dairy  farms.  The  Babcock 
test,  the  invention  of  Dr.  S.  M.  Bab- 
cock,  of  Wisconsin  University,  is  the 
one  in  almost  universal  use,  and  is 
made  as  follows.  A  fair  sample  of 
milk  is  taken,  in  which  the  fat  is 

well  distributed.    For  example,  if  it  is  desired  to  test  the  milk 

of  a  cow,  after  it  is  drawn  it  is  poured  from  one  pail  into 

another  and  then  back  again,  to  see  that  it  is  well  mixed. 

Then  with  a  glass  pipette,  17.6  cubic  centimeters  of  milk 

are  measured,  and  this  sample  is  placed  in  a  small  test 

bottle    with    a    slender    neck 

which  is  graduated  up  to  ten 

per   cent.      Next    17.5   cubic 

centimeters  of  commercial  sul- 
phuric acid,  having  a  specific 

gravity  of  1.82,  are  measured 

off  in  a  glass  graduate,  and  this 

is  poured  into  the  bottle  and 

mixed  with  the  sample  of  milk. 

It  is  best  to  hold  the  neck  of 

the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position 

when    pouring    in    the    acid, 

turning  the  bottle  during  the 

operation,   so  that   any   milk 

which  may  have  adhered  to 

the  neck  will  be  washed  down. 

This  combination  is  attended 

with   ^omp  hpflt     thp    pnnfpnt«5       Fieure    131.  — Milk    testing    equip- 
W1I  [ICdL,    I  ment.      1— pipette;  2— milk  bottle; 

t^f   tVta    K/~kf±1o    4iir-n    o     V>lor»l'ioVk  ^ — acid  measure.    Reproduced  from 

01  tne  Dottle  turn  a  uiackisn        Burreii  &  Co.  catalog. 


308  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

brown,  and  all  the  solids  in  the  milk  excepting  the  butter- 
fat  are  destroyed.  If  this  small  bottle  containing  the  milk 
sample  is  then  placed  in  a  well  balanced  centrifugal  machine 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  is  turned  for  five  minutes,  the 
fat  is  thrown  to  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  Hot  soft  water  is 
then  placed  in  the  sample  bottle,  until  it  reaches  the  neck, 
after  which  it  is  rotated  in  the  centrifugal  two  minutes 
longer.  Then  more  hot  water  is  added,  to  fill  the  neck  high 
enough  to  permit  reading  the  per  cent  of  fat,  which  accumu- 
lates as  a  solid  column  when  the  bottle  is  whirled  a  minute 
more  in  the  centrifugal.  One  usually  measures  the  fat  by 
use  of  common  dividers,  setting  the  points  at  the  lower  and 
upper  line  of  fat,  after  which  one  point  is  placed  at  the  0 
mark,  while  the  other  point  indicates  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  milk.  The  fat  should  always  be  measured  while  hot, 
before  it  has  contracted  by  cooling.  Every  dairy  farmer 
should  have  a  Babcock  test  outfit,  and  carefully  test  the  milk 
of  his  herd. 

Cow-testing  associations  have  assumed  much  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States  in  recent  years.  The  first  asso- 
ciation of  the  kind  is  said  to  have  been  established  in 
Denmark  in  1895,*  while  the  first  one  in  America  was  organ- 
ized in  1905  at  Fremont,  Michigan.  In  1921  there  were 
452  of  these  associations  in  the  United  States,  with  Wiscon- 
sin in  the  lead  with  103,  Pennsylvania  second  with  45,  and 
Ohio  third  with  35.  The  purpose  of  the  cow-testing  associa- 
tions is  to  secure  disinterested  records  of  the  individual  cows 
in  the  herds  of  a  community.  A  group  of  farmers  form  a 
co-operative  association,  adopt  rules  for  conducting  the  tests 
of  herds  and  employ  an  expert  or  official  tester  to  supervise 
the  work.  This  person  visits  each-  herd  at  least  once  a 
month,  when  he  weighs  each  milking  of  the  day,  and  takes 
samples  of  the  milk,  which  he  properly  tests.  He  may  also 
make  a  record  of  the  kind  and  amount  of  food  fed  on  the 
day  in  question.  Unless  two  small  herds  are  close  by,  in 

*Farm  Dairying,  By  C.  Larsen,  1919. 


FACTORS  INFLUENCING  MILK  PRODUCTION         309 

which  event  they  may  each  be  tested  the  same  day,  as  a 
rule  but  one  herd  a  day  is  visited.  The  number  of  tests 
in  a  month,  however,  will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  associa- 
tion, which  should  not  consist  of  over  26  herds.  On  July  1 
1921,  the  452  associations  in  the  United  States  had  11,209 
members,  and  the  herds  averaged  17.3  cows  each. 


PRODUCTION. 

Of  the  Average  Cow  ititke  United  States 
and  Dairy  Countries 


y» 

kBi  fi     ""•*  cw  37,384  18& 

^Dist  of  Columbia 


NY-Mass  -Oregon-  Wis. 
WaKo-Me.-Mvnri-Nev.-Na- 


Alias. 

Pr.p.re4    by    th.  Ddr»  TUtta. 
U.  S,  Department  o<  Agricultut*.' 


Figure  132. — Showing  the  milk  production  of  the  average  cow  in  the  United 
States  and  dairy  countries. 

WHAT  DO  YOU  KNOW  ABOUT 

1.  The  dairy  cow  as  a  producer  of  digestible  food? 

2.  The  relative  merits  of  beef  and  dairy  cows  in  milk  production? 

3.  The  composition  of  Jersey  and  Holstein-Friesian  milk? 

4.  The  effect  of  the  cow's  age  on  milk  production? 

5.  Decreased  milk  flow  and  stage  of  lactation? 

6.  Securing  high  butter-fat  records  in  official  testing? 

7.  The  effect  of  different  foods  on  the  flavor  of  milk? 

8.  The  effect  of  the  milking  machine  on  production? 

9.  How  the  fat  content  of  milk  is  determined? 

10.  Cow-testing  associations? 

VISIT  SOME  DAIRY  HERDS  AND 

11.  Note  the  type  of  cows  being  milked. 

12.  Determine  what  breeds  are  in  most  favor. 

13.  Learn  what  per  cent  of  the  cows  are  over  eight  years  old. 

14.  Study  the  milk  sheets  in  the  stable. 

15.  Note  the  rations  being  fed. 

16.  If  milking  machines  are  used,  ascertain  with  what  success. 

17.  Compare,  if  possible,  some  tested  with  untested  herds. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  most  careful  study  has  been  given  to  the  feeding  of 
dairy  cattle.  The  experiment  stations  have  done  exten- 
sive work  in  feeding,  and  many  practical  dairymen  have 
used  feeding  standards  and  made  up  carefully  balanced 
rations  in  efforts  to  work  out  their  home  problems. 

The  feeding  standards  for  dairy  cattle  cover  young  and 
growing  animals  and  those  producing  milk.  There  is  not 
much  difference  in  the  growth  requirements  of  dairy  and 
beef  cattle.  Slightly  more  protein  is  recommended  for  the 
latter,  with  about  equal  amounts  of  carbohydrates.  The 
amount  of  food  given  to  milk-producing  cows  depends  largely 
on  the  yield  of  milk.  The  Wolf-Lehmann  tables  here  quoted 
are  from  Feeds  and  Feeding,  by  Henry  and  Morrison. 

I.    Wolff-Lehmann  feeding  standard  for  growing  dairy  cattle. 


Age 
months 

2-  3 
3-  6 
6-12 
12-18 
18-24 

Average 
live  weight 

150  Ibs. 
300" 
500  " 
700  " 
900  " 

Per  day  for  1,000  Ibs. 
Dry         Digestible 
matter          protein 

23  Ibs.         4.0  Ibs. 
24  "            3.0  " 
27  "            2.0  " 
26  "            1.8  " 
26  "            1.5  " 

live  weight 
Nutrient 
carbohy- 
drates 
13.0  Ibs. 
12.8  " 
12.5  " 
12.5  " 
12.0  " 

Fat 

2.0  Ibs. 
1.0  " 
0.5  " 
0.4  " 
0.3  " 

Nutritive 
ratio 

.   1:4.5 
1:5.1 
1:6.8 
1:7.5 
1:8.5 

II.    Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  for  dairy  cows. 

For  maintenance  1,000  Ib.  cow   .    .  .0.700  Ib.  digestible  crude  protein 
.7925  total  digestible  nutrient. 

To  allowance  for  maintenance  add :    Digestible  crude    Total  digestible 

protein  nutrients 

For  each  Ib.  of  3.0          %  milk  0.047-0.057      -      0.286 


3.5 
4.0 
4.5 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 


0.049-0.061  0.316 

0.054-0.065  0.346 

0.057-0.069  0.376 

0.060-0.073  0.402 

0.064-0.077  0.428 

0.067-0.081  0.454 


310 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  311 

Feeding  milk  to  the  dairy  calf,  as  practiced  in  the  United 
States,  does  not  vary  greatly  in  method  among  intelligent 
breeders.  The  calf  is  usually  allowed  to  stay  with  the  mother 
in  a  box  stall  for  3  or  4  days  after  it  is  born,  nursing  at 
will.  Some  persons,  however,  take  the  calf  away  within 
24  hours  or  at  once.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  allow  the  calf  to 
nurse  the  cow  until  the  milk  is  fit  to  use,  being  careful  not 
to  overfeed,  for  the  massage  and  frequent  nursing  of  the 
calf  will  help  to  reduce  udder  inflammation.  The  milk  for 
the  first  3  or  4  days  contains  a  substance  called  colostrum, 
which  makes  fresh  milk  more  or  less  sticky,  arid  this  material 
acts  as  a  desirable  physic  with  the  new-born  calf. 

After  being  taken  from  the  mother,  the  calf  must  be  fed 
whole  milk,  preferably  from  the  dam.  Calves  are  fed  this 
new  milk  for  from  1  to  3  weeks,  starting  with  8  to  10  pounds 
a  day,  divided  in  3  feeds.  Then  skim  milk  is  gradually 
substituted  for  the  whole,  adding  each  day  a  pound  until 
only  skimmed  milk  is  fed.  The  milk  for  the  young  calf 
should  be  sweet  and  always  be  fed  in  perfectly  clean  pails 
under  sanitary  conditions,  at  a  temperature  of  about  100 
degrees,  or  as  it  may  come  from  the  separator.  Care  should 
be  exercised  not  to  overfeed.  A  good  rule  to  go  by  is  to 
feed  1  pound  of  milk  for  each  8  or  10  pounds  of  live  weight. 
For  example,  a  Holstein-Friesian  calf  weighing  100  pounds 
might  be  fed  10  or  12  pounds.  Skim  milk  may  be  profit- 
ably fed,  when  cheap  or  abundant,  up  to  8  or  10  months  of 
age,  when  the  calf  should  be  weaned.  Whole  milk  is  too 
expensive  for  calf  feeding  unless  for  some  special  purpose, 
while  the  skimmed  milk  under  proper  conditions  produces  a 
strong-framed,  vigorous  animal. 

Feeding  roughage  to  the  dairy  calf  is  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter. If  a  handful  of  fine  leafy  hay  or  clover  be  placed  in 
the  stall  when  the  calf  is  2  or  3  weeks  old,  it  will  begin  to 
nibble  on  it,  and  its  consumption  of  this  roughage  will  grad- 
ually increase.  This  dry  coarse  feed  will  distend  the  stom- 


312 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ach  and  increase  its  feeding  capacity.  The  most  popular 
hay  fed  dairy  calves  is  either  clover  or  alfalfa.  A  200-pound 
calf  will  consume  2  or  3  pounds  of  hay  a  day. 

Feeding  concentrates  to  the  dairy  calf  begins,  as  a  rule, 
at  2  to  3  weeks  of  age.  The  best  plan  is  to  have  a  small 
feed  box  in  the  manger  or  stall,  in  which  a  handful  of  some 
palatable  meal  may  be  placed.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  corn  meal,  bran,  and  oats  will  be  relished.  Messrs.  Hulce 
and  Nevens,  of  the  Illinois  station,  recommend*  a  mixture 
of  ground  corn  10  parts,  by  weight,  oats  50  parts,  wheat 
bran  30  parts,  and  oil  meal  10  parts.  One  may  feed  shelled 
or  cracked  corn  in  the  milk,  if  desired.  When  skim  milk  is 
fed,  the  calf  should  not  be  fed  oil  meal  or  foods  rich  in  pro- 
tein, because  the  nutritive  ratio  of  skim  milk  is  extremely 
narrow  (1:1),  so 
that  some  food  rich 
in  carbohydrates 
should  be  used  in- 
stead, and  corn 
serves  this  purpose 
very  well.  The  calf 
should  be  fed 
enough  g'rain  and 
roughage  along 
with  the  milk  to 
keep  it  gaining  from 
a  pound  to  a  pound 
and  a  half  a  day. 

Raising  calves  with  a  milk  substitute  has  not  met  with 
general  success,  unless  begun  after  2  or  3  months  of  age. 
Substitutes  for  milk  have  been  made  and  sold  on  the  market, 
and  teas  have  been  made  from  hay  and  mixed  with  concen- 
trates, but  these  are  not  entirely  satisfactory.  Milk  in  some 
quantity  for  a  time  is  really  essential,  if  the  calf  is  to  do 
well.  Hulce  and  Nevens  say:  f 

*Circular  202,  Univ.  of  111.  Ag.  Exp.  Station,  Feed  and  Care  of  the  Dairy  Calf, 
flbid.  p.  6. 


Figure  133. — Feeding  the  young  dairy  calf, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


FEEDING  DAIRY  CATTLE  313 

"It  is  necessary  in  using  a  milk  supplement  other  than  skim  milk 
to  feed  a  considerable  amount  of  whole  milk.  The  amount  of  milk 
required  is  about  a  pound  daily  for  every  eight  pounds  of  live  weight 
until  the  animal  is  four  or  five  weeks  old.  At  that  age  a  milk  supple- 
ment may  be  substituted  gradually  for  the  milk.  Such  a  supplement 
may  be  prepared  as  a  gruel  mixture  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  oil  meal, 
blood  meal,  hominy  and  flour.  The  gruel  is  made  by  pouring  hot  water 
over  the  meal  while  it  is  stirred  vigorously,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  before  being  used.  The  gruel  may  be  fed  at  such  a  rate  that  the 
animal  receives  the  equivalent  of  one  fourth  pound  of  dry  meal  daily 
at  the  beginning,  the  amount  being  increased  about  one  fourth  of  a 
pound  daily  each  week  for  four  weeks.  As  a  rule  the  use  of  milk  should 
be  continued  until  the  calf  is  at  least  60  days  of  age.  At  two  months  of 
age  the  calf  will  have  received  about  400  pounds  of  whole  milk  in  addi- 
tion to  the  milk  supplement." 

Feeding  the  dairy  heifer  after  weaning  calls  for  securing 
a  consistent,  strong  growth  by  the  use  of  as  much  good 
roughage  as  possible  and  a  relatively  small  amount  of 
grain.  There  is  nothing  better  for  this  purpose  than  legume 
hay,  corn  silage,  and  2  or  3  pounds  of  grain  a  day.  In  an 
extended  report*  on  experiments  on  " winter  rations  for 
dairy  heifers,"  Prof.  C.  H.  Eckles  offers  some  practical  sug- 
gestions from  which  tffe  following  is  abstracted. 

(1)  When  silage  and  legume  hay  is  available,  a  ration  of  corn 
silage,  alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  or  soy  bean  hay  at  will,  and  2  pounds 
daily  of  grain  also,  if  the  calf  is  under  10  months  old,  is  recommended. 
Corn  may  be  fed,  or  a  mixture  of  other  grains  if  the  cost  is  less.     From 
2  to  5  pounds  of  grain  a  day  should  be  fed  heifers  within  3  months  of 
calving. 

(2)  When  legume  hay  is  not  available  but  corn  silage  is,  use  silage 
at  will  with  some  other  dry  hay  or  fodder.     Two  or  3  pounds  of  some 
concentrates  should  be  fed  daily,  half  of  which  should  be  rich  in  protein, 
such  as  gluten  feed,  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal,  the  other  half 
being  corn,  bran,  or  any  other  mixture  if  cheaper  than  corn. 

(3^  When  legume  hay  is  abundant,  but  no  silage,  a  ration  of  alfalfa, 
clover,  cowpea  or  soy  bean  hay  at  will,  and  2  pounds  of  corn  daily  will 
make  a  satisfactory  ration.  On  a  ration  of  legume  hay  dairy  heifers 
will  do  fairly  well  but  will  not  make  a  normal  growth.  It  is  economical  as 
a  rule  to  feed  a  limited  amount  of  grain  in  addition. 

(4)  When  corn  fodder,  or  Kafir  corn  or  timothy  hay  is  available, 
but  no  silage  or  legume  hay,  it  will  be  wise  to  buy  legume  hay.  The 
suggested  ration  is  half  and  half  legume  and  timothy  hay,  with  corn 
fodder  at  will.  For  concentrates  with  this  roughage  feed  a  mixture  of 
one  part  gluten  feed,  or  cottonseed  meal,  or  linseed  meal,  and  two  parts 
corn.  If  legume  hay  is  not  at  all  available,  then  more  grain  must  be  fed. 

Feeding  the  milk-producing  cow  offers  an  opportunity 
to  make  up  many  combinations  of  rations.  It  must  be 

*Bulletin  158  Missouri  Station,  October,  1918. 


314  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

agreed,  however,  on  the  basis  of  extensive  experimental  as 
well  as  practical  feeding,  that  legume  hay  and  corn  silage, 
with  standard  grains  such  as  corn  and  oats  and  mill  prod- 
ucts like  bran,  gluten  feed,  linseed  meal  and  cottonseed  meal, 
furnish  the  most  palatable  and  satisfactory  list  of  feeds  for 
common  use  in  milk  production.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have 
a  great  variety  in  order  to  secure  satisfactory  results  from 
the  feeding.  If  one  studies  the  composition  of  rations  of 
cows  that  have  made  high  records  in  official  testing,  one 
will  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  comparatively  simple 
rations  have  given  very  fine  returns.  Where  one  buys  feed, 
the  market  price  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  selection, 
but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  cow  yielding  a  generous 
milk  supply  should  have  a  ration  in  which  proteid  foods 
play  an  important  part. 

A  common  standard  for  the  amount  of  concentrates  to 
be  fed  is  1  pound  for  each  3  or  4  pounds  of  milk  produced. 
Cows  producing  rich  milk  require  slightly  heavier  feeding 
than  those  producing  poor  milk.  From  30  to  50  pounds  of 
silage  are  usually  fed  daily,  according  to  size  of  cow  and 
milk  yield,  with  a  free  use  of  dry  roughage.  When  on  good 
pasture,  no  silage  or  roughage  is  fed,  and  oftentimes  but 
little  grain  will  then  be  eaten.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  each  cow  is  fed  as  an  individual,  and  that  she  has  enough 
to  meet  all  requirements.  Many  cows  are  underfed.  It  is 
very  important  to  know  that  of  the  food  eaten  40  per  cent 
is  used  to  support  the  demands  of  the  body,  and  60  per  cent 
goes  to  milk  production.  Any  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
nutrients  necessary  will  be  shown  in  a  falling  off  in  weight 
of  the  cow  and  in  a  lessened  milk  supply.  Thus  it  can  be 
easily  seen  that  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  feed  enough  to 
the  cow. 

RECOMMENDED  RATIONS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 
Various  factors  play  an  important  part  in  making  up 
rations,  two  of  these  being  especially  so  in  common  practice, 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE 


315 


§s 


?>  03 

1-2 

H 


II 


1§ 

1° 


«  S 

o  <& 

11 

s  >> 


&:° 

J1 


316 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


namely,  availability  and  cost.  The  following  recommended 
rations  are  by  well-known  American  authorities  on  feeding 
dairy  cattle,  and  for  that  reason  are  here  given. 

Prof.  E.  S.  Savage  of  Cornell  University  writes.*     "The 


Figure  136.  —  The  result  of  feeding  too  much  wheat  bran  and  poor  roughage. 
This  cow  was  fed  a  mixture  of  6  parts  wheat  bran,  4  parts  corn  stover. 
Millers'  bran  disease  resulted  the  cow  aborting  six  weeks  before  her  time. 
Reproduced  from  Bulletin  302,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 

mixture  I  am  suggesting  for  dairy  cows  this  summer  is  as 
follows : 

300  pounds  wheat  bran .  .Cost  $3.43 

.    "       4.52 


330 
300 
100 

1000 
100 


hominy .... 

gluten  feed 

oil  meal 

will  cost. . 


5.17 
1.71 


Cost  14.83 

"       1.49 

The  above  is  for  cows  on  pasture." 
Prof.  A.  C.  McCandlish,  of  the  Iowa  State  College,recom- 
mends  the  following  concentrate  rations  in  a  pamphlet  on 
feeding  dairy  cattle,  f  it    being   assumed   that    corn  silage 

*Holstein-Friesian  World,  July  9,  1921. 

fCircular  No.  64,  Iowa  Exp.  Station,  March,  1920. 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE 


317 


and  some  one  or  another  of  the  legume  hays  will  also  be  fed. 


100 
100 
100 
100 
400  Ib 
200 
100 
100 

ground  oats, 
wheat  bran, 
cottonseed  meal, 
linseed  meal. 
s.  cracked  corn,  corn-and-cob  meal,  or  hominy  feed, 
ground  oats, 
gluten  feed, 
wheat  bran. 

Ration  A.    400  Ibs.  cracked  corn,  corn-and-cob  meal,  or  hominy  feed. 

200  "     ground  oats. 

100   "   cottonseed  meal. 

100    "    linseed  meal 
Ration  B.    400  Ibs.  cracked  corn,  corn-and-cob  meal,  or  hominy  feed. 


Ration  C. 


Among  13  rations  recommended  by  Prof.  F.  W.  Woll* 

the  following  are  selected: 

(1)  Hay  20  Ibs.,  oats  3  Ibs.,  corn-and-cob  meal  3  Ibs.,  linseed  meal 
2  Ibs. 

(2)  Hay  10  Ibs.,  corn  stalks  free,  wheat  bran  3  Ibs.,  corn  meal 

2  Ibs.,  cottonseed  meal  2  Ibs. 

(3)  Hay  free,  corn  silage  30  Ibs.,  oats  4  Ibs.,  linseed  meal  2  Ibs., 
cottonseed  meal  1  Ib. 

(4)  Alfalfa  hay  20  Ibs.,  oats  4  Ibs.,  corn  meal  2  Ibs. 

(5)  Corn  silage  30  Ibs.,  cottonseed  hulls  12  Ibs.,  cottonseed  meal 

3  Ibs.,  bran  6  Ibs. 

Prof.  C.  H.  Eckles,  of  Minnesota  University,  gives  the 

following  among  "some  good  dairy  rations: "f 

(1)  Corn  silage  25  Ibs.,  clover  hay  10  Ibs.,  corn  4  Ibs.,  wheat  bran 

4  Ibs. 

(2)  Corn  silage  30  Ibs.,  alfalfa  or  cow  pea  hay  10  Ibs.,  corn  6  Ibs., 
wheat  bran  2  Ibs. 

(3)  Clover  hay  20  Ibs.,  corn  4-5  Ibs.,  wheat  bran  or  oats  2-4  Ibs. 

(4)  Clover  hay  20  Ibs.,  corn-and-cob  meal  6  Ibs.,  gluten  or  cotton- 
seed meal  2  Ibs. 

Prof.  C.  Larsen,  of  South  Dakota  State  College,  recom- 
mends the  following  two  rations  :§ 

(1)  When  corn  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  or  clover  hay  are  fed,  then 
use  a  mixture  of  25  per  cent  ground  corn,  55  per  cent  ground  oats,  20 
per  cent  wheat  bran.     For  large  producing  cows  add  two  to  four  pounds 
linseed  meal  daily. 

(2)  When  cows  are  fed  corn  silage  and  prairie  hay,  or  brome  grass 
hay,  or  timothy  hay  for  roughage,  then  the  following  basic  grain  ration 


is  recommended. 

Ground  oats 45  per  cent 

Ground  barley  or  spelt  20  "       " 


Wheat  bran 20  per  cent 

Linseed  meal..         ..15  "       " 


*Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  1915. 
tDairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  1911. 
§Farm  Dairying,  1919. 


SIS  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Among  the  15  rations  given  above,  it  will  be  noted  are 
those  suited  to  the  far  North,  the  Central  West,  the  Western 
states,  the  South,  and  New  England. 

The  feed  for  dry  cows,  as  a  rule,  largely  consists  of  silage 
or  roughage.  It  is  important,  however,  that  they  be  in  good 
condition  at  calving,  in  order  to  meet  the  drain  of  milk  pro- 
duction. Farmers  who  sell  milk  or  butter  usually  plan  to 
have  their  cows  freshen  late  in  the  fall,  so  that  they  may  be 
milked  during  the  period  of  higher  prices,  and  also  at  a  time 
when  they  can  give  more  individual  attention  to  live  stock. 
Pasture,  therefore,  may  be  about  the  only  feed  the  cow  will 
receive  on  many  farms.  As  the  pastures  get  short,  silage 
or  legume  hay  should  be  fed,  if  possible,  and  enough  grain 
given  to  put  the  cow  in  condition  for  freshening.  In  cases 
where  official  testing  is  conducted,  dry  cows  are  often  fattened 
to  fit  them  for  record-making  milk  production. 

Feeding  cows  on  pasture  requires  careful  oversight. 
When  the  green  stuff  is  abundant,  other  feed  may  be  un- 
necessary. As  the  grass  gets  short  in  July  or  August,  it 
should  be  supplemented,  if  possible,  with  silage  or  with 
some  soiling  crop,  such  as  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  alfalfa,  etc. 
Further,  some  grain  is  desirable  when  the  pastures  get  short. 
The  cows  should  be  kept  up  in  production  as  much  as  pos- 
sible at  this  time,  and  a  light  grain  feed  will  help.  Experi- 
ments on  feeding  grain  to  cows  on  pasture  were  conducted 
at  Cornell  University  for  some  years,  when  it  appeared 
that  the  extra  milk  yield  did  not  pay  for  the  feed;  but  there 
was  a  secondary  result  from  the  feeding  of  the  grain  on 
pasture.*  "It  was  found  in  the  Cornell  experiments  that  in 
the  second  year  the  cows  that  had  received  grain  while  on 
pasture  the  year  before  did  better  than  those  that  received 
no  grain. 

"Prof.  Roberts  holds  that  the  benefit  of  grain  on  pasture 
was  an  especially  marked  one  in  the  development  of  the 
young  stock.  This  combination  of  feed  showed  up  in  their 

*Prof.  E.  S.  Savage  in  Holstein-Friesian  World,  July  9,  1921. 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  319 

greater  production,   greater  size    and    stretch    than    those 
receiving  no  grain  on  pasture." 

Feeding  the  dairy  bull.  Many  persons  neglect  the  bull, 
and  feed  him  very  meager  rations,  so  that  he  often  looks  thin 
and  poorly  fed.  The  bull  should  never  be  fat  and  in  high 
condition,  but  he  should  look  in  good  muscular  form,  full  of 
vigor  and  ambition.  He  should  have  plenty  of  suitable 
hay  and  feed  of  concentrates  in  which  protein  is  abundant. 
If  he  is  at  the  head  of  a  large  herd  and  in  service,  then  he 
should  be  fed  about  the  same  amount  of  nutrients  as  a 
dairy  cow,  otherwise  less  food  is  needed.  From  5  to  10 
pounds  of  grain  a  day  may  be  fed,  depending  upon  the  size 
and  work  of  the  animal.  Some  persons  object  to  silage  for 


Figure  137. — Dairy  cows  on  pasture.      Photograph  by  the  author. 

the  bull,  thinking  that  this  food  makes  him  sterile,  and  do 
not  feed  it,  but  in  the  author's  experience  it  may  be  fed 
satisfactorily  if  in  not  too  great  an  amount,  as  10  or  12 
pounds,  for  example.  Prof.  Larsen,  however,  states*  that 
he  has  discontinued  feeding  silage  to  dairy  bulls  in  service. 
Some  succulent  food,  however,  is  desirable,  and  in  summer 
green  food  may  be  fed,  and  in  winter  sliced  roots  in  small 
quantity  are  recommended. 

Exercise    for    health    and    vigor   is    a    most    desirable 
thing  for  the  dairy  bull.     At  the  Ohio  State  University  for 

*Farm  Dairying,  1919. 


320  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

some  years  we  have  had  a  strong  cable  stretched  between 
two  high  iron  posts  about  100  feet  apart.  A  strong  rope 
about  10  feet  long  is  fastened  at  one  end  in  the  ring  in  the 
nose  of  the  bull,  while  the  other  end  is  tied  to  an  iron  ring 
which  slides  on  the  cable.  The  bull  thus  fastened  is  given 
a  fine  opportunity  for  exercise  and  is  yet  under  control. 
The  University  has  also  exercised  a  Jersey  bull  by  harness- 
ing him  and  hitching  to  a  small  wagon,  driving  him  about 
with  reins,  and  using  him  for  hauling  loads  of  moderate 
weight.  Under  most  conditions,  as  a  matter  of  safety  to 
attendants,  the  bull  should  be  dehorned. 

Salt  for  dairy  cattle  is  very  necessary,  and  should  be  sup- 
plied with  regularity.  Some  persons  at  regular  intervals 
throw  a  quantity  of  salt  in  each  manger.  Many  feeders, 
who  study  their  feeding  carefully,  sprinkle  the  necessary 
amount  of  salt  in  the  feed  at  regular  times.  Others  have 
salt  boxes  in  yards,  where  the  cattle  may  lick  it  at  will,  or 
throw  heaps  on  the  ground  where  it  will  be  eaten.  Accord- 
ing to  our  best  authorities,  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds 
should  be  fed  from  1  to  3  ounces  of  salt  a  day,  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  milk  produced. 

Water  for  the  dairy  cow.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  a 
cow  producing  a  great  amount  of  milk,  say  100  pounds  in  a 
day,  must  require  a  large  amount  of  water  to  supply  her 
body  needs.  The  amount  of  water  necessary,  however,  de- 
pends largely  on  the  kind  of  food  eaten  and  the  milk  yield. 
If  rich  pasturage,  a  soiling  feed,  silage  or  roots  are  eaten,  the 
demand  for  water  will  be  comparatively  light,  while,  if  dry 
pasture  or  hay,  especially  a  legume,  is  the  main  source  of 
roughage,  large  amounts  of  water  may  be  drunk.  A  warm 
temperature  also  adds  to  the  demand  for  drink.  Under  fair 
conditions  of  production,  probably  75  to  100  pounds  of 
water  daily  will  suffice.  The  Holstein-Friesian  cow  Mis- 
souri Chief  Josephine  at  Missouri  University,  according  to 
Prof.  C.  H.  Eckles,  on  a  seven-day  test,  averaged  in  excess 


FEEDING  DAIRY   CATTLE  321 

of  100  pounds  of  milk  each  day.  She  ate  about  18  pounds 
of  alfalfa  hay,  10  pounds  of  silage  and  14  to  20  pounds  of 
grain,  and  drank  from  216  to  307  pounds  of  water  daily,  or 
approximately  from  27  to  38  gallons  a  day. 

QUESTIONS  LIKE  THESE  ARE  OFTEN  ASKED  BY  DAIRYMEN 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  feeding  standard? 

2.  How  long  after  birth  should  a  calf  be  allowed  to  nurse  its  dam? 

3.  What  is  a  good  ration  for  a  calf  weighing  about  200  pounds? 

4.  Is  there  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  milk  for  raising  calves? 

5.  What  is  a  good  winter  ration  for  a  dairy  heifer? 

6.  How  much  grain  should  be  fed  to  the  producing  cow? 

7.  What  per  cent  of  the  food  goes  into  milk  production? 

8.  Will  you  give  a  good  ration  for  my  dairy  cow?     I  have  plenty  of 

silage  and  legume  hay,  cracked  corn,  oats,  bran,  gluten  feed. 

9.  Under  what  conditions  should  dry  cows  be  fed  grain? 

10.  Does  it  pay  to  feed  grain  to  cows  on  pasture? 

11.  How  should  a  dairy  bull  be  handled  and  fed? 

12.  How  much  salt  should  be  fed? 

13.  What  is  the  relationship  of  water  consumption  to  milk  production? 

AMONG  PEOPLE  YOU  KNOW  KEEPING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

14.  Are  balanced  rations  commonly  used? 

15.  In  what  way  and  how  long  are  the  calves  fed  milk? 

16.  What  form  of  roughage  is  fed  the  calves? 

17.  Can  you  secure  two  or  three  sample  rations  and  exhibit  them  to  your 

class? 

18.  Who  feeds  grain  to  cows  on  pasture? 

19.  How  are  the  aged  bulls  exercised? 

20.  When  and  how  are  the  cows  salted? 


1 1 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 

Before  taking  up  the  study  of  sheep,  it  is  desirable  to 
first  give  some  consideration  to  the  subject  of  wool,  in  order 
that  one  may  understand  its  relationship  to  sheep  hus- 
bandry. 

The  commercial  production  of  Wool  is  a  world-wide 
industry,  with  some  countries  giving  it  much  more  attention 
than  others.  According  to  estimates  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  wool  crop  of  the  world 
for  1921  amounted  to  2,608,445,000  pounds.  Australasia, 
including  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Tasmania,  is  the  lead- 
ing wool-producing  part  of  the  world,  being  credited  with 
798  million  pounds.  South  America,  more  especially  Argen- 
tina and  Uruguay,  produced  in  1921  approximately  460  million 
pounds,  while  North  America  ranked  third,  producing  about 
250  million  pounds.  The  only  states  in  this  country  which 
in  1920  had  over  2,000,000  sheep  each  of  all  ages  were  Texas, 
California,  Idaho,  Ohio,  Montana,  and  Oregon  in  the  order 
given.  In  past  years  the  United  States  has  under  average 
conditions  used  in  her  mills  about  550  million  pounds  of 
wool,  of  which  about  250  million  pounds  have  been  pro- 
duced in  this  country.  Boston  is  the  great  wool  market  of 
America,  and  London  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain. 

A  study  of  the  structure  of  wool  is  very  interesting. 
This  fiber  grows,  from  the  skin,  and  is  similar  in  its  origin 
and  composition  to  other  skin  tissues,  such  as  nails,  horns 
and  feathers.  Wool  grows  from  a  gland  known  as  the  hair- 
follicle  located  in  the  dermis,  or  middle  layer  of  skin.  This 
follicle  secretes  a  small  amount  of  oil,  and  minute  sebaceous 

322 


SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 


323 


glands  in  the  skin  also  give  off  wool  fat.  The  wool  fiber  is 
made  up  of  three  distinct  parts,  an  outer  layer,  or  epidermis, 
consisting  of  flattened  cells  or  scales  which  lap  over  each 
other  much  like  the  shingles  on  a  roof;  the  cortex,  which  con- 
sists of  cells  more  or  less  long  from  which  the  fiber  gets  its 
form  and  strength;  and  the  medulla,  or  pith,  at  the  center. 
The  epidermis  of  wool  differs  from  that  of  common  hair, 
because  the  scales  project  outward,  giving  a  serrated  ap- 
pearance, while  on  hair  the  scales  more  nearly  butt  together 
and  give  a  much  smoother  surface  to  the  fiber.  In  the  case 
of  wool,  the  projecting  edges  of  a  mass  of  fibers,  when  brought 
together  under  certain  condi- 
tions, lock  or  felt.  It  is  this 
quality  of  felting  which  gives 
wool  its  special  value  for  cloth 
making,  a  property  not  pos- 
sessed by  ordinary  hair.  These 
scales  differ  in  size  on  different 
breeds  of  sheep;  but,  while  very 
small,  may  be  seen  under  a 
common  microscope,  especially 
if  the  fiber  is  first  exposed  a 
moment  to  boiling  water,  or  to 
acid  or  alkali,  which  will  cause 
the  overlapping  edges  to  open 
up  still  more.  These  scales 
have  a  very  hard,  smooth  surface,  and  are  more  or  less  trans- 
lucent, so  that  the  cortex  below  may  be  seen  through  them. 
The  finer  wools,  such  as  Merino,  have  scales  that  are  often 
smooth  and  straight  along  their  edges,  while  the  scales  on 
the  larger,  coarser  wools  have  serrated,  more  irregular  edges. 
From  the  scales  of  the  epidermal  layer  comes  a  quality  known 
as  lustre  in  the  wool  trade,  which  is  highly  valued.  This  is 
due  to  the  unbroken  reflection  of  light  from  the  scales. 
When. the  scales  are  regular  and  uniform  in  their  arrange- 


Figure  138. — Comparison  of  varieties 
of  wool  fibres.  M — Merino.  T — 
territory,  C — coarse.  Reproduced 
from  "Textile  Fibers,"  by  Dr.  J.  M. 
Matthews. 


324  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ment,  with  their  edges  fitting  closely  together,  the  fiber  will 
be  smooth  and  lustrous,  a  quality  especially  noticeable  in 
the  long,  coarse  wools,  like  those  of  the  Cotswold  and  Lin- 
coln. The  qualities  of  rigidity  or  pliability  of  wool  are  due 
to  the  scales.  If  they  fit  over  each  other  loosely,  with 
prominent  projecting  points,  they  felt  most  easily,  and  will 
be  soft  and  pliable,  while,  if  they  fit  close,  with  little  over- 
lapping, as  in  hair,  they  will  have  little  or  no  felting  quality 
and  will  be  stiff  and  resistant. 

The  cortex  of  wool  consists  of  a  quantity  of  more  or  less 
long,  straight  cells,  united  to  give  the  fiber  its  round  form. 
From  the  cortex  the  fiber  derives  its  tensile  strength  and 
elasticity.  If  the  fiber  is  very  fine,  the  cells  of  the  cortex 
are  more  or  less  uneven  in  length  and  grouping,  so  that  it 
takes  on  a  wavy  appearance  or  what  is  commonly  termed 
crimp.  This  property  is  most  marked  with  Merino  wool, 
where  we  may  find  25  crimps  to  the  inch,  while  it  is  least 
seen  in  the  long  wools,  where  only  2  or  3  crimps 
usually  occur.  The  degree  of  crimp  adds  much  to  the 
elasticity  and  spinning  quality  of  the  wool. 

The  medulla,  or  pith,  of  wool  consists  of  round  cells  in 
the  center  of  the  cortex.  Sometimes  the  medulla  occupies 
from  one  fourth  to  one  third  of  the  diameter  of  the  fiber, 
and  again  it  may  be  barely  present,  or  even  not  at  all.  Pig- 
ment, or  coloring  matter,  is  frequently  found  in  this  part, 
and  is  especially  present  in  the  medulla  and  cortex  of  colored 
wools.  The  medulla  acts  as  a  tube  for  transferring  nutrition 
the  length  of  the  fiber,  and  also  as  a  medium  for  introducing 
dyes  and  so  artificially  coloring  the  wool. 

Some  features  of  wool  that  are  important  in  the  trade 
should  receive  brief  consideration  here. 

The  fleece  refers  to  the  entire  covering  of  wool  on  the 
sheep  or  the  same  removed  and  tied  in  a  bundle  in  the  wool 
warehouse.  The  fleece  differs  in  its  length  and  quality 
according  to  the  part  of  the  animal  from  which  it  comes.  The 


SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 


325 


best  and  longest  wcfol  on  the  body  is  found  over  the  shoulders 
and  ribs.  The  back  and  neck  wool  also  rank  high.  That 
on  the  belly  is  very  fair,  but  short,  while  that  on  the  thighs 
is  the  poorest. 

The  length  of  fiber  varies  from  one  and  a  half  to  eight  or 
nine  inches  for  a  year's  growth,  the  former  for  the  fine  or 
short  wools,  the  latter  for  the  coarse  or  long  wools. 

The  fineness  of  fiber  varies  greatly,  microscopical  measure- 
ments showing  it  to  range 
from  about  TgVo'  °f  an  mcn 
with  the  finest  Merino,  to 
-g-J-g-  of  an  inch  with  Cots- 
wold  or  Lincoln.  In  the 
British  and  some  other  mar- 
kets the  fineness  of  wool  is 
indicated  by  the  number  of 
times  560  yards,  or 
"counts,"  can  be  spun  from 
one  pound  of  combed  wool. 
A  70's  count,  which  repre- 
sents Merino  wool,  means 
that  every  pound  of  combed 
wool  may  be  spun  70  times 
560  or  39,200  yards. 

The  density  of  fleece  al- 
ludes to  the  thickness  of 
Photo-  the  wool  fibers  in  a  given 
space  on  the  body,  as,  for 
example,  a  square  inch.  Naturally  the  finer  the  fiber  the 
denser  the  fleece.  In  some  Merino  fleeces  as  many  as  60,000 
fibers  grow  on  a  square  inch  of  the  body.  Fineness  of  fiber 
and  density  and  weight  of  fleece  are  naturally  associated. 

Triteness  of  fiber  refers  to  its  uniform  condition  from  its 
attachment  to  the  skin  to  its  tip.  It  must  be  uniform  in 
diameter,  without  any  swellings  or  contractions. 


Figure    139. — A   fleece   of    wool, 
graph  by  the  author. 


326  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Soundness  of  fiber  means  that  it  will  'stand  a  very  good 
tension  without  showing  a  weakness  at  any  one  place.  Such 
a  fiber  must  come  from  a  healthy  animal. 

Unsoundness  of  fiber  is  manifested  in  two  ways.  In  some 
cases  of  sickness  or  unfavorable  conditions  of  feed  or  water, 
the  fiber  becomes  "tender,"  and  easily  breaks  when  subjected 
to  tension.  Another  form  of  unsoundness  may  occur  from 
sickness,  starvation,  or  change  of  feed,  in  the  fiber'?  contract- 
ing, forming  what  has  been  termed  a  "break."  This  is  easily 
seen  by  the  eye,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  cases  where 
a  break  shows  clearly  at  one  point  through  the  fleece.  Such 
a  fiber  is  very  defective,  and  easily  breaks  on  tension. 

A  cotted  fleece  results  when  the  wool  on  the  sheep  gets 
entangled  in  its  own  scales,  and  thus  goes  through  a  natural 
felting.  This  condition  especially  occurs  when  sheep  are 
not  in  good  health,  and  are  packed  close  together  in  pens, 
so  that  the  wool  is  placed  under  pressure.  Cotting  occurs 
more  commonly  with  long-wool  sheep  than  other  breeds. 

Kemp  is  a  hard  hair,  found  mostly  on  the  head  and 
thighs,  that  will  not  take  a  dye.  It  is  commonly  white, 
although  there  is  dark  colored  kemp.  A  fleece  that  has 
much  kemp  is  very  inferior. 

The  yolk,  or  grease,  of  wool  is  the  oil  from  the  sebaceous 
glands  which  naturally  works  up  the  fiber  toward  the  tip, 
where  it  takes  on  dust,  so  that  the  exterior  of  the  entire 
fleece  appears  more  or  less  dark  and  greasy,  according  to 
the  kind  of  sheep.  This  yolk  washes  out  to  some  extent  in 
clear  water,  but  in  the  woolen  mills  it  is  removed  by  a  process 
of  "scouring,"  that  is,  being  washed  in  water  containing 
alkali,  which  removes  all  the  external  grease.  "The  differ- 
ence in  loss  of  yolk,"  says  Professor  Hawkesworth,*  "is  great 
when  you  deal  with  an  average  clip  of  Merino,  and  one  of 
an  extra  fatty  nature.  The  former  will  lose  about  20  to  25 
per  cent,  and  the  latter  .45  to  60  per  cent  (exclusive  of  dirt) 
when  both  are  thoroughly  cleaned."  American  Merino  wool 

*Australian  Sheep  and  Wool,  Alfred  Hawkworth,  1906. 


SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL  327 

of  the  heavy  sort  frequently  scours  out  65  per  cent.  Wool 
buyers  do  not  like  to  purchase  fleeces  heavily  saturated  with 
yolk  on  account  of  this  loss.  The  yolk  should  be  evenly 
distributed  through  the  fleece,  and  preferably  be  of  a  light 
creamy  or  white  color. 

The  grading  of  wool  refers  to  the  process  of  examining 
each  fleece  and  assigning  it  a  place  with  other  wool  of  the 
same  kind.  After  being  removed  from  the  sheep  on  the 
farm,  the  fleece  in  America  is  usually  placed  in  large  burlap 
sacks,  holding  from  200  to  400  pounds,  according  to  the  kind 
of  fleece,  Merino  being  the  heaviest.  These  sacks  are  shipped 
to  the  wool  warehouse,  where  they  are  opened  by  ripping 
the  seam  on  one  side,  and  the  fleeces  graded.  A  man  usually 
stands  at  a  small  table,  with  a  number  of  large  baskets  on 
wheels  ranged  before  him.  A  helper  takes  the  fleeces  from 
the  wool  sack  and  places  them  on  the  table  before  the  grader, 
who  looks  them  over  rapidly,  and  then  throws  each  into  a 
basket  along  with  others  of  the  same  grade.  The  contents 
of  each  basket  is  placed  in  a  separate  pile  with  other  wool 
of  its  kind,  where  it  is  left  for  examination  by  the  buyer. 

The  market  classification  of  wool.  Commercial  wool  is 
graded  into  three  great  classes,  namely: 

(1)  Clothing  wool,  of  short,  fine  staple; 

(2)  Combing  wool,  somewhat  coarser  than  clothing,  and 
ranging  from  two  to  eight  inches  long,  and 

(3)  Carpet  and  knitting  wools,  which  are  coarse  and  long. 
Clothing  wools  are  short,  being  two  inches  or  less  in 

length,  and  are  put  through  a  carding  process  owing  to  their 
shortness.  When  thus  handled  the  fibers  lie  interlaced  in 
various  directions.  These  wools  are  of  fine  grade,  with  con- 
siderable crimp,  matting,  and  felting  together.  Combing 
wools  usually  are  two  and  one  half  inches  long,  or  more.  In 
these  the  fibers  are  combed  out  parallel  with  one  another 
preparatory  to  being  spun  into  yarn.  Carpet  and  knitting 
wools  are  of  combing  length,  and  are  used  in  making  the 


328  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

coarser  sorts   of   cloth.   To   make   this   subject   somewhat 
clearer,  the  following  is  quoted  from  a  well-known  authority  :* 

"According  to  their  length  of  staple,  wool  fibers  are  graded  into 
two  classes:  tops  and  noils.  The  former  includes  the  longer  stapled 
fibers,  which  are  combed  and  spun  into  worsted  yarns,  to  be  manufac- 
tured into  trouserings,  dress-goods,  and  such  fabrics  as  are  not  fulled  to 
any  extent  in  the  finishing.  The  latter  class  consists  of  the  short-stapled 
fibers,  which  are  carded  and  spun  into  woolen  yarns  to  be  used  for 
weft  and  all  classes  of  goods  which  are  fulled  more  or  less  in  the  finishing 
operations,  where  a  felting  together  of  the  fiber  is  desired.  On  compar- 
ing worsted  and  woolen  yarns,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  former  are 
fairly  even  in  diameter,  and  the  individual  fibers  lie  more  or  less  parallel 
to  each  other,  whereas  in  woolen  yarns  the  diameter  is  very  uneven,  and 
the  fibers  lie  in  all  manner  of  directions." 

Wools  are  classified  somewhat  differently,  according  to 
the  locality  in  which  they  are  produced.  Domestic  wools 
refer  to  those  of  the  eastern  United  States,  especially  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  Missouri, 
Kentucky,  and  other  states  producing  similar  wools.  These 
are  often  termed  the  "fleece  wool  states."  Territory  wools 
originally  referred  to  all  wools  produced  west  of  the  Missouri 
river,  but  at  present  the  territory  wool  states  are  Montana, 
Wyoming,  Idaho,  Washington,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Colorado. 
The  wools  of  Oregon,  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and 
Texas  are  now  classified  separately  from  the  territory 
grades.  Domestic  wools  are  commonly  classified  as  follows: 

Combing  wools.  Clothing  wools. 

Delaine  XX  and  X  fine. 

Half-blood  combing.  Half-blood  clothing 

Three-eighths  combing.  Three-eighths  clothing. 

Quarter-blood  combing.  Quarter-blood  clothing. 
Low  quarter-blood  combing. 
Braid. 

The  grade  XX  comes  from  superior  Merino  blood  of  the 
wrinkly  sort,  while  the  X  grade  is  slighly  coarser.  Delaine 
wools  should  usually  be  from  two  and  one  half  to  four  inches 
long,  are  of  superior  quality,  and  naturally  the  product  of 
smooth-bodied  Merino  sheep.  The  terms  half-blood,  three- 
eighths,  and  quarter-blood,  originally  were  used  to  indicate 
that  these  grades  were  from  sheep  showing  such  percentages 
of  Merino  blood,  but  this  distinction  no  longer  applies,  for 

*The  Textile  Fibers.     J.  Merritt  Matthews,  1908. 


SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 


329 


now  much  of  our  wool  will  grade  within  this  classification 
and  show  no  Merino  blood.  The  use  of  the  word  "low" 
indicates  a  somewhat  inferior  quality  of  the  grade  next  above 
it.  Braid  is  the  coarsest  grade  we  have,  and  is  the  product 
of  long-wool  sheep,  such  as  the  Cotswold  or  Lincoln. 

A  scale  of  points  for  judging  wool  has  recently  been  pro- 

WOOL  SCORE  CARD 


BREED Date 

GRADE.  .  .  .Student's  Name 

QUALITY  OR  FINENESS:  Fine  fiber,  breed  or  grade 
considered.  Not  a  mixture  of  fine  and  coarse  fibers. 
Not  a  wide  difference  between  shoulder  and  breech. 
Finer  areas  large;  coarser  ones  small 20 

LENGTH:  Should  be  clearly  of  combing  length  for  the 
grade;  that  is  fine,  2^4  inches;  Yi  blood,  3  inches; 
Ys  blood,  3>/2  inches;  l/±  blood,  4  inches.  Lengths 
more  than  %  inch  greater  of  no  additional  value 
except  in  wool  coarser  than  l/i  blood.  Fibers  that 
lie  together,  all  the  same  length.  Little  variation 
over  main  parts  of  the  fleece.  A  minimum  of  short 
wool 15 

SOUNDNESS:  Strong  throughout;  no  weak  spots;  fibers 
of  uniform  thickness  from  base  to  tip  except  for 
tapering  of  yearling  fleeces 15 

PURITY:      No  hair,  kemp,  or  black  or  dark  brown  fibers. 
Score   heavily   for   beard   hairs   on   wrinkles  of   fine 
wooled  sheep,  dark  fibers  mixed  through  the  fleece  of 
Downs,    and   coarse   hair   on   the   breech   of   croi 
breds 12 

CHARACTER:  (a)  Fiber,  evenly  crimped  throughout, 
crimp  close  and  distinct,  fibers  parallel  except  for 
sufficient  binders  to  hold  the  fleece  together.  Tips 

free  from  wastiness.      No  frowzy  wool 6 

(b)  Soft  and  springy  to  touch;  elastic  under  pressure 

COLOR:  White,  bright.  Main  fleece  free  from  stains. 
Minimum  of  stained  areas  around  breech  and  on 
belly 4 

CONDITION:     (a)    Yolk,    moderate   in   quantity,   light 

color,  evenly  distributed 3 

(b)  Free  as  possible  from  naturally  adhering  sand 

and  dust,  and  from  heavy  tags  and  sweat  locks ....  3 

(c)  Free  from  burrs,   chaff,  seeds  or  other  foreign 
matter,  not  mouldy  or  mothy;  free  from  excessive 
paint,  not  tied  with  sisal  or  rough  jute  twine,  or 

with  excessive  amounts  of  twine.      Not  cotted  ....  20 


Total  points . . 


Perfect 
Standard 


100 


Student's 
Grade 


WEIGHT  OF  FLEECE.     (Actual  or  estimated ) 

SHRINKAGE.     (Per  cent  estimated  weight  clean  wool ) 

FINAL  SCORE.     (Total  score,  times  estimated  weight  of  clean  wool ) 

ESTIMATED  PRICE  PER  CLEAN  POUND 

TOTAL  VALUE  OF  FLEECE 

VALUE  PER  GREASE  POUND 

The  above  scale  of  points  was  prepared  more  especially  for  scoring  commercial 
wool,  of  combing  class,  rather  than  wool  of  a  breed,  or  of  clothing  or  braid  class. 


330  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

posed  by  Professor  C.  I.  Bray,  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural 
College.*  In  view  of  its  excellence,  and  because  it  very 
appropriately  follows  the  preceding  discussion  of  wool,  it  is 
herewith  reproduced. 

The  shearing  of  sheep  is  an  important  operation  that 
requires  skill  and  a  good  system  of  handling.  Briefly  de- 
scribed, the  sheep  is  placed  on  its  rump,  the  back  resting 
more  or  less  against  the  knees  of  the  shearer.  There  are 
several  methods  used  by  skilled  shearers  to  remove  the  fleece, 
of  which  the  following  is  one.  The  shears  are  started  in  at 
the  right  front  flank  and  the  fleece  is  cut  close  to  the  body 
in  a  direct  line  to  the  hind  flank.  Then,  by  successive 
strokes,  the  wool  is  shorn  over  the  belly,  beginning  at  the 
brisket,  and  running  the  shears  from  the  right  side  to  the 
left,  so  that  the  wool  here  may  be  laid  over  like  a  blanket  to 
the  left  side.  Next  the  wool  is  removed  from  the  hind  legs, 
working  from  the  right  to  left  side,  cutting  it  away  about 
the  thighs  and  just  over  the  tail  head,  so  that  the  sheep 
may  rest  on  a  shorn  rump.  In  doing  this  part,  the  sheep 
should  be  placed  in  a  reclining  position,  so  that  the  end  of 
the  rump  may  be  covered  with  the  shears. 

The  sheep  is  then  placed  more  erect,  the  shearer  hold- 
ing it  by  the  jaw  with  the  left  hand,  while  cutting  the  fleece 
upward  from  the  brisket  along  the  lower  right  side  of  the 
neck  to  the  end  of  the  jaw.  After  the  fleece  is  removed 
from  the  lower  side  of  the  neck  and  over  the  left  front  leg 
and  shoulder,  the  shearer  removes  the  fleece  about  the  head, 
and  then  in  successive  strokes,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the 
neck,  removes  the  fleece  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  then 
down,  from  the  line  between  the  two  left  flanks,  he  runs  his 
shears  around  to  the  middle  of  the  back,  turning  the  sheep 
meanwhile  as  needs  be.  Having  removed  the  fleece  on 
the  left  half  of  the  neck  and  body,  the  shearer  starts  at  the 
top  of  the  neck  again,  and  continues  down  as  before,  but  on 

*Breeder3'  Gazette,  October  13,  1921. 


SOMETHING  ABOUT  WOOL 


331 


the  right  side,  removing  the  fleece  from  the  neck  and  body 
in  proper  order.  If  the  job  is  well  done,  the  shearer  will 
take  off  his  fleece,  like  a  blanket,  and  spread  it  out  as  a  con- 
nected whole,  the  inner  part  down,  the  locks  together.  The 
sides  of  the  fleece  are  then  turned  in  toward  the  center,  and 
commencing  with  the  head  wool,  the  entire  fleece  is  rolled 
up  to  make  a  neat  bundle,  which  is  tied  together  with  stand- 
ard wool  twine,  no  more  than  is  necessary,  just  two  to  four 
times  around. 


Figure    140. — Shearing   with   hand   machines   at   the   Ohio   State    University. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

Some  important  rules  in  shearing  must  be  followed,  if 
the  work  is  to  be  done  right  and  superior  Wool  placed  on  the 
market.  The  author  will  assume  that  the  fleece  is  clean 
and  free  of  dirt,  chaff,  and  burrs. 

(1)  Shear  on  a  level,  smooth  floor  that  may  be  kept  clean. 

(2)  Cut  the  wool  as  close  to  the  body  as  possible,  using  the 
shears  but  once  in  the  same  place.     A  second  cut  produces 
short  fiber,  which  injures  the  selling  value  of  the  fleece. 

(3)  Never  pull  the  wool  or  push  it  back  with  the  left 
hand  while  shearing,  as  the  skin  is  thus  elevated  and  is  quite 
likely  to  be  cut. 


332  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

(4)  Use  as  little  force  as  possible  in  handling  the  sheep. 
Some  are  nervous  and  struggle,  and  should  be  handled  gently. 
If  shearing  is  done  in  warm  weather,  see  that  a  struggling 
sheep  be  not  exhausted  and  overheated.     It  might  better  be 
freed,  as  it  may  die  if  the  struggle  is  continued. 

(5)  Do  not  shear  when  the  fleece  is  wet.     In  this  condi- 
tion it  will  mould  and  the  fiber  be  weakened.     Wet  wool 
may  also  get  stained  if  dung  locks  are  present  in  the  fleece. 

(6)  Use  only  standard  wool  twine,  such  as  paper  or  hemp. 
Binding  twine  is  a  positive  damage.     Its  vegetable  fibers 
catch  in  the  wool  and  can  not  be  removed  except  by  hand 
labor  after  they  are  woven  in  the  cloth. 

(7)  Leave  out  all  dung  locks  and  coarse  belly  and  britch 
wool  from  the  fleece,   selling  this  separately.     Thus  you 
establish  a  better  reputation  for  your  wool  as  a  dependable 
product.     In  Australia  the  common  practice  is  to  skirt  the 
wool,  removing  the  inferior,  coarser  parts  at  the  neck,  legs, 
and  sides,  and  selling  these  separately.     This  custom  has 
given  Australian  wool  its  fine  reputation. 

SOME  WOOLLY  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  leading  wool-producing  countries? 

2.  What  is  the  felting  property,  and  what  is  natural  felting? 

3.  How  does  wool  differ  from  common  hair? 

4.  Can  you  explain  the  significance  of  the  word  "count"? 

5.  What  is  the  relationship  of  soundness  of  fiber  to  its  usefulness? 

6.  Why  do  wool  buyers  object  to  fleeces  containing  a  large  per  cent 

of  yolk? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  grading  wool?     How  is  it  done? 

8.  How  do  combing  and  clothing  wools  differ? 

9.  What  grades  of  combing  wools  are  there?     Can  you  give  them? 

10.  What  are  some  good  rules  to  follow  when  shearing? 

THINGS  OF  INTEREST  TO  DO  WITH  WOOL  AND  SHEEP 

11.  Examine  some  fiber  of  wool  and  hair  under  a  microscope. 

12.  Note  the  difference  in  the  character  of  the  wool  on  one  sheep. 

13.  Collect  ounce  samples  of  fleeces  for  comparison. 

14.  Make  up  a  collection  of  market  grades,  and  obtain  their  market 

prices  per  pound? 

15.  Report  on  the  kind  of  shearing  practiced  in  your  neighborhood. 

16.  Try  your  hand  at  shearing  and  note  the  result. 

17.  Bring  in  samples  of  worsted  and  woolen  cloth  for  class  inspection. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

The  origin  of  the  domestic  sheep  is  generally  believed  to 
be  from  several  kinds  of  wild  sheep  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  One  of  these  is  found  in  the  hilly  or  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Asia,  and  is  known  as  the  Argali.  It  is  much 
larger  than  our  domestic  sheep,  has  big  horns,  and  a  coat  of 
black  or  dark-red  hair,  below  which  is  a  covering  of  white 
wool.  Another  form,  called  the  Musmon,  is  found  at  the 
present  time  on  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  in  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  where  they  have  become  more  or  less 
domesticated.  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  are  another  sort  liv- 
ing on  the  higher  mountains  of  North  America.  Wild  sheep 
have  always  been  found  in  the  elevated  parts  of  Africa  and 
eastern  Asia.  All  these  sheep  have  certain  features  in  com- 
mon. 

Just  how  long  sheep  may  have  been  subject  to  the  control 
of  man  we  do  not  know.  Neither  have  we  any  definite 
information  as  to  the  wild  family  from  which  the  domestic 
form  originally  came.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  sheep 
have  been  domesticated  longer  than  any  other  farm  animal. 
Bones  of  sheep  have  been  found  among  the  remains  of  the 
lake  dwellers  of  Switzerland,  a  people  who  lived  before 
the  dawn  of  history.  The  very  earliest  writings,  including  the 
Bible,  show  man  to  have  had  large  flocks  of  domestic  sheep. 

Three  distinct  classes  or  groups  of  sheep  are  recognized, 
depending  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  fleece.  These 
are  fine  or  short,  medium,  and  long  or  coarse  wools.  These 
classes  are  somewhat  due  to  the  sorting  over  of  the  fleeces 
by  the  wool  merchant,  who  finds  that  each  class  serves  a 
special  purpose  in  his  business.  Another  grouping  is  also 

333 


334 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


sometimes  made,  consisting  of  the  fine-wool,  or  Merino,  class 
and  the  mutton  breeds.  This  last  arrangement,  however, 
is  more  commonly  referred  to  by  shepherds  than  by  wool 
dealers.  There  are  many  different  breeds  of  sheep,  some 
of  which  are  but  little  known  in  America,  and  the  following 
are  the  only  ones  of  importance  in  this  country. 

The  Merino  is  a  very  old  breed  that  had  its  important 
early  development  in  Spain.  Here  for  centuries  the  monks 
and  wealthy  people  owned  large  flocks  that  were  noted  for 
their  very  fine  wool.  As  long  ago  as  the  first  century,  the 

sheep  of  Spain 
were  famous, 
and  the  manu- 
facture of  wool 
into  beautiful 
cloth  was  a  great 
industry  in  that 
country  in  the 
thirteenth  cen- 
tury. When  the 
people  of  the 
other  European 
countries  learn- 
ed of  the  fine 
wool  that  was 
produced  there,  they  sent  to  Spain  and  obtained  some  of 
the  Spanish  sheep.  Specially  selected  flocks  were  taken  to 
Germany  and  France  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  where  they  later  met  with  much  favor. 

The  first  Merinos  were  brought  to  the  United  States  in 
1793.  Three  head  were  smuggled  out  of  Spain  by  William 
Foster,  of  Boston.  He  gave  them  to  a  friend,  who  killed 
them  for  meat,  not  knowing  how  valuable  they  were,  until 
he  later  paid  $1,000  for  a  ram  of  the  same  breed.  Seth 
Adams  of  Massachusetts,  later  of  Ohio,  imported  a  pair  in 


Figure  141. — Merino  ram,  "Shorty."    Of  B  type.    Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS         335 

1801,  and  in  1802  Colonel  Humphreys,  of  Connecticut, 
brought  to  America  nearly  100  head.  These  Humphrey 
sheep  proved  very  valuable,  and  from  them  some  of  the  best 
flocks  in  America  started.  Much  interest  followed  these  two 
importations.  Soon  other  people  began  to  import  Merinos 
into  the  United  States,  and  very  high  prices  were  paid  for 
them.  During  18  months  ending  in  1811,  nearly  20,000  of 
these  sheep  were  brought  to  this  country.  The  people  went 
wild  over  Merinos,  as  high  as  $1,500  being  paid  for  individual 
animals.  As  our  country  developed,  the  Merino  became 
widely  distributed  and  but  few  of  any  other  kind  were  kept 
for  many  years.  During  this  time  our  people  cared  but  little 
for  mutton,  but  high  prices  were  paid  for  wool,  for  which 
the  Merino  was  especially  valued.  These  sheep  grew  greatly 
in  popularity  in  all  wool-producing  countries,  so  that  even 
to-day  there  are  more  sheep  of  this  breed  than  any  other, 
for  immense  flocks  of  pure-breds  and  grades  are  found  in 
Australia,  South  America,  and  over  much  of  the  United 
States.  The  production  of  wool,  however,  is  less  profitable 
than  formerly,  so  that  shepherds  are  gradually  changing  to 
the  mutton  breeds  or  are  giving  up  their  flocks  altogether. 
Several  different  Merino  families  have  been  developed 
in  America.  They  all  had  their  origin  in  the  sheep  of  Span- 
ish breeding,  but  in  the  hands  of  certain  men  each  gradually 
developed  special  features.  In  this  way  families  of  Merinos 
were  established.  For  a  great  many  years  all  sheep  that 
had  heavy  folds  over  the  body  were  known  as  Spanish 
Merinos.  Later  the  people  came  to  refer  to  sheep  of  this 
class  that  had  been  produced  in  America,  as  American  or 
A-type  Merinos.  In  time,  a  larger  sheep,  with  few  folds  or 
none,  developed,  that  produced  a  longer  and  somewhat 
coarser  grade  of  wool  especially  suited  for  certain  cloth  manu- 
facture. These  became  known  as  Delaine,  or  C-type  Mer- 
inos. These  sheep  also  produced  a  good  grade  of  mutton. 
What  are  known  as  B-type  Merinos  show  a  moderate  amount 


336  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  folds,  especially  at  neck,  breast,  and  hind  quarters.  Among 
the  Delaines  are  some  family  branches  of  interest,  though 
not  widely  bred,  as,  for  example,  the  Dickinson  and  the 
Blacktop.  Most  of  the  Delaine  improvement  of  importance 
has  taken  place  in  Ohio  and  western  Pennsylvania. 

Some  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  Merino  may 
be  considered  here.  These  sheep  produce  the  finest  wool 
known,  grading  as  XX,  or  X  fine,  or  Delaine.  It  is  so  fine 
that  over  1,500  fibers  may  be  laid  side  by  side  within  an  inch 
space.  The  fleece  covers  the  entire  body,  often  coming 
down  over  the  face  to  the  nostrils,  and  covering  the  legs  even 
to  the  toes.  From  sheep  having  folds  or  wrinkles  over  the 
body  we  should  get  the  finest  and  shortest  wool.  The  fewer 
folds  over  the  body,  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  sheep  and  the 
longer  and  coarser  the  fleece.  Average  Merino  wool  is  about 
2J^  inches  long. 

On  the  outside  of  the  fleece  we  usually  find  more  or  less 
grease  or  oil,  or  yolk,  as  it  is  called,  mixed  with  dirt.  This 
mixture  easily  washes  out,  even  in  cold  water.  The  cloth 
manufacturer  removes  this  by  scouring.  Some  fleeces  in 
this  operation  lose  75  per  cent  of  their  weight.  Wool  buyers 
do  not  like  a  very  heavy  amount  of  yolk,  on  account  of  this 
shrinkage  when  the  wool  is  scoured.  A  common  weight  for 
a  fleece  is  8  or  10  pounds,  but  some  fleeces  have  weighed 
over  40  pounds  when  taken  from  the  sheep.  Rams  weigh  at 
maturity  130  pounds  or  more,  and  ewes  around  100  pounds. 
Those  with  folds  weigh  the  least,  while  the  smooth-bodied 
ones  are  larger.  Merino  sheep  are  very  hardy  and  thrive 
on  ordinary  pasture.  They  run  together  in  flocks  much 
better  than  any  other  breed,  and  so  are  easily  managed 
by  shepherds  and  dogs  when  on  great  ranges  or  pastures. 
Large  numbers  of  sheep  that  have  Merino  blood  in  them 
come  into  the  markets,  but  really  are  of  mutton  parentage. 
They  make  excellent  mutton,  and  are  liked  by  butchers 
because  they  are  neither  too  large  nor  too  fat.  More  pure- 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND   GOATS 


337 


bred  flocks  are  found  to-day  in  Ohio  than  in  any  other  state, 
although  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  West  Virginia,  Oregon, 
California,  and  Texas  have  many  flocks.  West  of  the 
Mississippi  there  are  large  numbers  of  grade  Merinos  on 
the  range,  and  without  doubt  they  will  continue  popular 
there  as  long  as  sheep  husbandry  is  an  important  industry. 
The  Rambouillet  sheep  is  a  breed  of  Merinos  that  has 
been  especially  developed  by  the  French  Government.  In 
1786  King  Louis  XVI  of  France  sent  a  Mr.  Gilbert  to  Spain 
to  bring  back  a  selection  of  Merinos.  These  were  brought 
to  one  of  the  royal  farms  about  40  miles  west  of  Paris,  at  a 

town  named 
Rambouillet. 
Here  on  this  es- 
tate the  govern- 
ment ever  since 
has  bred  the  de- 
scendants  of 
these  sheep . 
They  were  intro- 
duced  into 
America  in  1840, 
and  for  many 
years  were 
1890  the  name 
the  term  French 
all  the  common 


Figure    142. — Champion    Rambouillet    ram,    1920    Ohio 
State  Fair.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


known  as  French  Merinos.  About 
Rambouillet  came  into  use,  and  now 
Merino  is  rarely  used.  These  sheep  have 
features  of  the  smooth-bodied  Merino.  It  is  the  very  larg- 
est family  of  this  breed,  however,  and  has  been  at  times 
called  the  " Elephant  Merino."  The  rams  weigh  about  185 
pounds  at  maturity,  though  some  have  weighed  over  250 
pounds,  and  the  ewes  weigh  around  150  pounds.  This  fam- 
ily is  known  as  a  mutton  Merino,  and  the  mutton  form  is  an 
important  feature.  Thus  one  may  expect  a  broad  back  and 
a  thick  leg  of  mutton  in  a  good  specimen  of  the  Rambouillet. 


338  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

There  are  two  types  of  Rambouillet  sheep,  the  B  and  C. 
The  B  type  is  marked  with  folds  on  neck,  breast,  front  and 
rear  flanks,  and  hind  quarters,  while  the  C  type  has  a  smooth 
body,  with  possibly  one  or  two  folds  at  the  neck  and  breast. 
The  C  type  represents  what  the  more  progressive  Ram- 
bouillet breeders  have  had  in  mind  in  producing  a  dual- 
purpose  sheep.  The  fleece  of  12  months'  growth  should  be 
about  3  inches  long,  and  compact  over  the  body,  with  but 
little  yolk  or  dirt  on  the  outside  and  grade  as  fine,  fine- 
medium,  or  Delaine.  Well-bred  Rambouillet  flocks  shear 
about  10  or  12  pounds  of  wool  per  head.  These  sheep  have 
grown  in  popularity  in  recent  years,  for  they  mature  early, 
are  hardy,  and  seem  well  suited  to  most  parts  of  the  United 
States  where  sheep  husbandry  thrives.  On  the  western 
range  and  on  the  Pacific  slope  are  found  most  of  the  very 
best  and  largest  flocks  in  America.  There  are  also  numer- 
ous choice  flocks  in  Ohio  and  other  central  western  states. 
Rambouillet  sheep  have  been  bred  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  northern  Germany,  and  large  numbers  are  now  kept  in 
South  America,  especially  in  Argentina. 

The  Southdown  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  sheep.  Its 
native  home  is  on  the  Southdown  hills  in  Sussex  county  in 
southeast  England.  These  hills  are  of  white  chalk,  and  are 
covered  with  soil  on  which  grass  and  the  small  grains  do  very 
well.  About  1780  a  man  named  John  Ellman,  who  lived 
in  Sussex,  began  to  improve  the  native  sheep  and  kept  at 
this  work  for  over  50  years.  Through  his  efforts  the  South- 
down developed  into  the  best  mutton  sheep  known,  having 
splendid  vigor,  fattening  easily,  maturing  rapidly,  and  pro- 
ducing a  carcass  with  but  little  waste  at  slaughter.  While 
the  fleece  was  not  heavy,  its  quality  was  fine.  Following 
Mr.  Ellman  came  Jonas  Webb,  who  lived  about  60  miles 
north  of  London,  on  the  estate  of  Babraham,  near  the  city 
of  Cambridge.  He  was  also  one  of  the  great  English  breed- 
ers. His  Southdowns  had  more  size  and  were  a  still  better 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND   GOATS 


339 


mutton  sheep  than  were  Ellman's.  As  a  mutton  sheep,  the 
Southdown  has  occupied  a  most  important  place  for  a  cen- 
tury or  more,  being  still  regarded  the  model  sheep  for  that 
purpose.  It  has  been  used  to  help  improve  more  breeds 
than  any  other.  Southdowns  were  first  imported  into 
America  about  1800,  and  since  then  many  very  excellent 
specimens  of  this  breed  have  been  imported  to  this  country. 
The  Southdown  has  been  noted  for  its  short,  neat  head, 
which  is  more  or  less  covered  with  wool  down  over  the  red- 
dish-brown face.  It 
has  a  short,  thick  neck, 
broad  chest,  wide 
back,  thick  meaty  leg 
of  mutton,  and  short 
red-brown  legs.  No 
other  breed  matures 
earlier,  and  it  is  not 
lacking  in  hardiness. 
Southdowns  are  well 
suited  to  grazing  on 
the  better  class  of 
pastures,  but  are  not 
so  good  for  the  range 
and  poor  pastures  as 
are  some  others.  The 
flesh  is  very  fine  of 

grain  and  is  not  inclined  to  be  overfat.  Butchers  especially 
admire  this  sheep  because  it  kills  out  so  well,  with  small 
amount  of  loss.  The  Southdowns,  or  sheep  with  more  or 
less  of  Southdown  blood,  have  won  more  prizes  in  fat-stock 
shows  where  the  carcasses  were  considered  than  has  any 
other  breed.  At  our  great  International  Live  Stock  Expo- 
sitions, the  Southdown  has  usually  won  the  grand-champion- 
ship in  the  dressed  carcass  exhibit.  Mature  rams  weigh 
about  180  pounds,  and  the  ewes  135  pounds.  These  sheep 


143. — Southdown 
George    V    of    Englan'd.     Owner    Ohio    State 


Figure 
Geoi_ 
University. 


bred    by    King 

lio 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


340 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


have  been  criticised  as  being  too  small  for  the  American 
farmer.  The  average  fleece  is  short  and  light  of  weight, 
though  of  fine  quality,  often  grading  as  three-eighths  cloth- 
ing, and  this  has  also  made  the  breed  generally  unpopular 
in  America,  although  it  is  looked  upon  with  much  favor  in 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  West  Virginia.  In  spite  of  these 
criticisms,  the  breed  commands  universal  respect,  and  many 
choice  flocks  of  Southdowns  are  found  all  over  the  civilized 
world,  especially  among  English-speaking  people. 

The  Shropshire  sheep  originated  from  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent types  native  in  and  about  the  county  of  that  name  in 

western  Eng- 
land. This  is  a 
rather  hilly  re- 
gion, with  many 
fine  pastures, 
and  is  well  suit- 
ed to  these  ani- 
mals. A  num- 
ber of  different 
men  were  inter- 
ested in  the  im- 
provement  of 
the  Shropshire, 
prominent  among  whom  were  Messrs.  Meire  and  Adney. 
Some  of  the  early  sheep  were  very  coarse  and  had  horns, 
and  Mr.  Meire  worked  to  improve  the  quality,  to  get 
rid  of  the  horns,  and  to  develop  a  better  mutton  sheep. 
In  this  respect  he  succeeded.  Shropshires  became  some- 
what prominent  in  England  about  1853,  when  they  were  first 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show.  About 
1880  much  attention  was  given  the  breed,  and  large  exhibi- 
tions were  made  at  English  shows.  These  sheep  were  first 
imported  into  America  in  1860,  by  Samuel  Sutton,  of  Mary- 
land. Twenty  years  later  they  were  imported  in  larger 


Figure  144. — Shropshire  ram,  2nd  prize,  1920  Ohio  State 
Fair.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  341 

numbers,  and  since  then,  more  especially  in  recent  years, 
thousands  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States,  where 
this  is  the  most  popular  of  all  the  mutton  breeds. 

In  size  the  Shropshire  sheep  is  medium,  the  mature 
rams  weighing  about  225  pounds  and  the  ewes  about 
160  pounds.  The  head  often  has  a  covering  of  wool,  or 
"cap,"  down  to  the  nose,  which  is  covered  with  dark  brown 
or  nearly  black  hair.  The  back  is  broad,  the  leg  of  mutton 
very  good,  and  the  body  is  usually  deep,  showing  good  feed- 
ing capacity.  The  legs  are  dark  brown  in  color  like  the  face, 
and  are  covered  with  wool  to  the  knees  in  front  and  to  the 
ankles  behind.  The  quality  of  mutton  is  most  excellent, 
being  second  to  the  Southdown  only.  The  fleece  is  usually 
about  3J/2  inches  long,  in  typical  specimens  grading  as  three- 
eighths,  and  is  of  very  good  quality.  A  twelve  months' 
growth  from  fair  specimens  of  the  breed  weighs  about  9  or 
10  pounds,  and  entire  flocks  have  averaged  even  more. 

The  good  combination  of  size  of  body  and  weight  of 
fleece  has  done  much  to  make  this  breed  popular  with  Amer- 
ican farmers,  as  a  great  general-purpose  sheep.  Further- 
more, the  Shropshire  is  our  most  prolific  breed,  many  ewes 
having  twin  lambs.  Flocks  are  very  common  all  over  the 
so-called  corn  belt  of  the  United  States,  especially  east  of 
the  Mississippi  and  in  Canada.  The  American  Shropshire 
Sheep  Association  is  the  largest  organization  of  its  kind  in 
the  world,  and  has  done  much  to  promote  the  breed. 

The  Oxford  Down  sheep  comes  from  the  county  of  Oxford, 
in  south-central  England.  It  is  a  beautiful  rolling  country, 
with  good  pastures,  and  where  wheat  and  small  grains  thrive. 
This  is  one  of  our  youngest  breeds  of  sheep,  and  comes  from 
a  combination  of  Cotswold  and  Hampshire  blood.  About 
1833  Samuel  Druce  began  to  breed  these  sheep,  and  finally 
produced  one  of  the  largest  English  mutton  breeds.  For  a 
long  time  the  wool,  though  abundant,  was  rather  inferior, 
but  the  size  and  the  mutton  quality  of  the  sheep  made  it 


342 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


•art 


sac 


popular.  A  few  of  these  sheep  were  brought  to  Delaware 
in  1846,  and  since  then  the  Oxford  Down  has  been  much 
improved  and  has  been  gaining  in  popularity  in  America. 
As  stated,  it  is  a  large  breed,  the  rams  at  maturity 
often  weighing  275  pounds  or  more,  and  the  ewes  about  200 
pounds.  The  color  of  the  hair  on  the  face,  ears,  and  legs  is 
a  very  dark  brown,  quite  like  the  Shropshire.  Oxfords  are 
not  so  heavily  wooled  over  the  head,  and  often  the  face  is 
rather  free  of  wool,  and  the  ears  incline  to  be  rather  smooth 
and  large.  Typical  specimens  have  quite  wide  backs,  fairly 
good  legs  of  mutton,  and  deep  bodies.  During  recent  years 

the  breed  has 
been  much  im- 
proved, the  flesh 
growing  finer  in 
quality,  and  the 
fat  being  laid  on 
more  smoothly. 
The  fleece,  which 
fre  quently 
weighs  12 
pounds,  is  long- 
er, more  open, 
and  coarser  than 
that  of  the  Shropshire  and  grades  usually  in  most  of  the 
flocks  of  the  country  as  quarter-blood  combing. 

This  breed  has  made  a  favorable  impression  on  farmers  in 
the  Middle  West,  where  fairly  early  maturity,  size,  and  heavy 
fleece  are  wanted.  The  ewes  are  quite  prolific,  and,  though 
not  equaling  the  Shropshires,  make  a  very  good  showing. 
The  Oxford  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  promising 
breeds  for  future  development.  Recently  flocks  have  been 
extensively  distributed  to  many  sheep-growing  countries. 
There  are  more  of  these  sheep  on  the  fertile  farms  of 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  New  York,  and  Ohio,  than 


Figure   145. — Oxford   Down  ram,   2nd   prize  Ohio  State 
Fair, 1920.     Photograph   by  the  author. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


343 


elsewhere  in  America,  for  they  are  heavy  feeders  and  require 
rich  pastures  or  forage  crops  in  order  to  do  their  best. 

The  Hampshire  Down  sheep,  like  the  Southdown  and 
Oxford  Down  breeds,  originated  in  southern  England  and 
under  much  the  same  conditions  of  climate  and  soil.  Their 
ancestors  were  of  two  kinds,  one  with  white  faces  and  horns, 
and  the  other  with  dark  faces  and  horns.  Southdown  blood 
was  mingled  with  these  two,  from  which  came  the  more  im- 
proved Hampshire,  without  horns  and  with  an  almost  black 
face,  ears,  and  legs.  William  Humphrey  was  the  most  im- 
portant early  improver  of  these  sheep,  and,  later,  James 


Figure  146. — Hampshire  ewes  on  farm  W.  J.  Cherry,  Ohio, 
the  author. 


Photograph  by 


Rawlence  did  much  for  them.  The  Hampshire  is  one  of 
the  largest  breeds,  mature  rams  often  weighing  over  250 
pounds,  and  ewes  nearly  200  pounds.  The  head  is"  one  of 
the  striking  features  of  the  breed.  The  nostrils,  lips,  and 
face  are  quite  black;  the  nose  is  very  strong,  or  Roman  in 
character;  and  the  ears  are  dark,  very  large,  and  incline  for- 
ward in  a  heavy  style.  Wool  rarely  extends  much  beyond 
the  forehead.  The  body  is  large,  and  the  form  is  of  the 
usual  mutton  type.  Hampshire  sheep  often  seem  some- 
what coarse  of  bone  and  large  of  limb.  The  fleece,  which 
grades  as  three-eighths  or  quarter-blood,  is  about  4  inches 


344  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

long,  inclines  to  be  coarse  and  open,  and  usually  does  not 
shear  much  above  7  pounds  with  12  months'  growth. 

Hampshires  have  long  been  popular  for  early  or  spring 
lambs,  which  are  regarded  as  excellent  quality.  This  breed  of 
sheep  has  grown  greatly  in  favor  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  large  importations  have  been  brought  to  the  United 
States.  On  the  western  range  lambs  sired  by  Hampshire 
rams  and  out  of  ewes  with  some  Merino  blood  are  quite 
popular.  Early  lambs  of  this  cross  are  also  valued  in  the 
eastern  market.  This  breed  requires  fertile  pastures  and 
plenty  of  feed  in  order  to  do  well.  Hampshires  are  widely 
distributed  in  North  and  South  America,  in  Europe  and 
Australia.  In  the  United  States,  important  flocks  are  kept 
in  the  northern  states  east  of  the  Mississippi,  especially  in 
Pennsylvania,  Kentucky,  New  York,  and  Michigan,  and  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  coast  states.  Idaho  leads. 

The  Dorset  Horn  sheep  receives  its  name  from  the 
county  of  Dorset,  in  southern  England,  where  it  has  long 
been  bred.  It  is  an  improved  form  of  two  native,  horned, 
white-faced  breeds  found  in  Dorset  and  Somerset  counties. 
The  modern  Dorset  Horn  belongs  to  the  middle-wool  class, 
and  is  of  medium  to  large  size,  rams  weighing  about  225 
pounds  and  ewes  165.  Both  sexes  have  horns,  those  of  the 
ram  at  maturity  being  large  and  having  spiral  turns,  while 
those  of  the  ewes  are  small,  and  bend  in  a  simple  curve 
around  toward  the  face.  The  head,  ears,  and  legs  have  a 
covering  of  white  hair,  and  the  nostrils  are  of  flesh  color. 
The  neck  is  often  short,  the  back  wide,  and  the  body  of  large 
capacity,  with  a  fair  leg  of  mutton.  Dorsets  are  popular  as 
lambs,  and  for  mutton,  although  the  quality  of  the  mutton 
is  not  of  the  best.  The  lambs  feed  well  and  lay  on  flesh 
rapidly.  As  wool  producers,  this  is  a  breed  that  should  do 
better.  The  fleece,  which  grades  as  three-eighths  or  quarter- 
blood,  tends  to  be  short  and  the  weight  light,  ranging  around 
6  pounds  for  average  animals.  These  sheep  were  first 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


345 


brought  to  America  in  1885,  and,  while  there  are  numerous 
flocks  in  the  eastern  states,  more  especially  in  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York,  the  breed  as  yet  can  hardly  be  called  popular. 
The  Cheviot  sheep  comes  from  the  Cheviot  Hills  in  the 
border  country  between  England  and  Scotland.  Here  the 
land  rises  into  grass-topped  mountains,  reaching  nearly  4,000 


Figure  147. — A  pen  of  Horned  Dorset  ewes,  champions  at  a  show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England.  Photograph  from  The  National  Stock- 
man and  Farmer. 

feet  above  the  sea.  Grass  is  the  universal  crop,  and  here 
this  breed  of  sheep  has  been  raised  for  long  beyond  a  cen- 
tury, and  gradually  improved  during  the  passing  years. 
To-day  the  Cheviot  is  a  medium-wool,  fair-sized  sheep,  the 
rams  weighing  around  200  pounds  at  maturity,  and  the 


346 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ewes  150  pounds.  This  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  breeds. 
The  head  is  entirely  free  of  wool,  and  the  face  and  ears  are 
covered  with  white  hair,  on  which  black  specks  occasionally 
occur.  The  nostrils  are  black,  the  nose  tends  to  be  a  bit 
Roman,  the  eye  is  large  and  prominent,  and  the  erect  ear  is 
usually  pricked  up  as  though  listening.  The  Cheviot  in- 
clines to  be  somewhat  narrow  of  back,  with  a  moderate 
depth  of  body  and  fair  leg  of  mutton,  though  in  recent  years 
it  has  been  much  improved.  The  fleece  covers  the  body  to 
the  back  of  the  ears  and  down  to  the  knees  and  hocks,  the 


Figure  148. — Cheviot  sheep  on  their  native  Scotch  hills.     Photograph  by  the 

author. 

rest  of  the  leg  being  covered  with  white  hair.  The  fleece, 
which  grades  as  three-eighths  or  quarter-blood  combing, 
tends  to  be  somewhat  open  and  is  usually  about  3J/£  inches 
long  and  a  year's  growth  weighs  6  or  7  pounds.  The  fiber 
inclines  to  be  coarser  than  that  of  the  Shropshire,  American 
breeders  using  the  latter  for  a  standard. 

Cheviots  are  very  hardy,  and  in  their  native  home  on  the 
mountains  rely  altogether  on  grass  the  entire  year.  They 
are  active  and  independent,  and  do  not  flock  as  do  other 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  347 

breeds.  For  this  reason  the  Cheviot  has  never  been  suited 
to  the  range  country.  The  quality  of  Cheviot  mutton  is 
very  superior,  having  very  fine  grain,  and  lacking  surplus 
fat.  In  mutton  carcass  contests  in  the  English  and  Scotch 
shows,  this  breed  and  its  cross-breds  have  always  held  a 
high  place.  It  is  not  widely  distributed  outside  of  its  native 
home,  though  found  in  the  United  States  in  New  York,  Ohio, 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  in  other  states  of  the  Middle  West. 

The  Suffolk  sheep  comes  from  the  county  after  which 
it  is  named,  in  southeastern  England.  It  belongs  to  the 
medium- wool  class,  and  is  a  mutton  breed  of  distinct  merit. 
In  the  carcass  contests  of  the  Smithfield  Club  Show  in  Eng- 
land, it  has  been  a  leading  prize  winner.  The  head,  ears, 
and  legs  of  the  Suffolk  are  distinctly  black  in  color, 
giving  a  group  of  these  sheep  a  very  striking  appearance. 
Mature  rams  weigh  about  250  pounds  and  the  ewes  175 
pounds.  The  fleece  is  not  heavy.  Suffolks  are  not  exten- 
sively bred  in  England,  although  growing  in  popularity  and 
but  few  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  America.  In  fact,  they 
are  very  rare  here,  and  are  not  often  seen  at  our  sheep  shows, 
neither  have  they  been  much  advertised  in  America. 

The  Tunis  sheep  takes  its  name  from  Tunis,  in  northern 
Africa,  where  it  is  supposed  to  have  originated.  In  1799, 
General  Eaton,  United  States  Consul  at  Tunis,  received  a 
gift  of  a  number  of  these  sheep,  two  of  which  survived  a 
voyage  to  America.  Other  importations  followed  this  one 
of  General  Eaton.  These  early  importations  were  kept  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  states,  and  little  was  done  to  im- 
prove them.  They  are  peculiar  in  having  a  large,  fat  tail, 
and  have  often  been  called  "Fat  Tailed  Sheep."  In  recent 
years,  especially  since  about  1893,  they  have  been  bred  in 
small  flocks,  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but  especially 
in  Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  New  York.  They  are  of  medium 
size,  with  brown,  or  mottled  brown  and  white  faces,  and 
brown  legs.  The  tail  is  cut  off  soon  after  birth,  as  with 


348 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


other  lambs,  but  the  hind  parts  of  the  Tunis  are  somewhat 
heavier  than  corresponding  parts  of  other  breeds.  The  Tunis 
makes  an  excellent  feeder,  and  lambs  of  this  breed  have  met 
with  much  favor  from  stock  buyers  and  the  fattened  lambs 
have  sold  for  high  prices  on  the  market.  The  fleece  is  of 
excellent  quality,  of  three-eighths  grade,  averaging  about  3 
inches  long,  and  frequently  containing  red  or  brown  fibers. 
But  few  of  these  sheep  are  to  be  seen,  and  fairs  rarely  make 
classes  for  them  in  the  premium  lists. 

The  Leicester  sheep  (pronounced  Lester)  originated  in 
central  England  in  the  county  of  that  name.  Here  Robert 
Bakewell,  one  of  the  most 
famous  live-stock  breeders  in 
English  history,  developed  and 
improved  the  native  stock 
into  the  New  Leicester.  This 
was  really  the  first  improved 
breed  of  sheep  known  in  Eng- 
land, and  for  a  great  many 
years  it  was  extremely  popu- 
lar. Some  of  these  sheep 
were  brought  to  America,  it  is 
said,  before  the  War  of  the 
Revolution.  In  1800,  New  Leicester  sheep  were  known 
about  Philadelphia.  In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  many  were  imported  and  sold  for  high  prices. 
This  is  a  large  breed,  and  belongs  to  the  long,  or  coarse, 
wool  class.  The  entire  head  and  ears  are  covered  with 
white  hair,  the  wool  not  growing  beyond  the  back  of  the 
head.  The  ears  are  large  but  thin,  and  are  usually  carried 
in  an  erect  position.  The  nostrils  are  black,  the  nose  is 
somewhat  prominent,  and  the  eye  bold  and  attractive. 
The  Leicester  has  a  full,  wide  breast;  broad,  flat  back; 
wide  rump;  and  fair  leg  of  mutton.  The  body  form  is 
broad  rather  than  deep,  and  sometimes  these  sheep 


Figure    149. — Border    Leicester    ram. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


349 


appear  long  of  leg.  They  fatten  rapidly,  and  the  rams  at 
maturity  weigh  around  250  pounds,  and  the  ewes  175  pounds 
or  more.  As  mutton  producers,  they  are  not  popular,  be- 
cause they  lay  on  too  much  fat.  They  require  good  pas- 
tures, and  are  not  the  hardiest  sheep  in  the  world. 

The  Leicester  is  the  smallest  of  the  long-wool  breeds,  and 
has  a  curly  fleece  of  low  quarter-blood  or  braid  grade  that 
does  not  shear  very  heavily,  7  to  9  pounds  being  about  a 
year's  growth.  These  unfavorable  criticisms  account  for 
there  being  so  few  of  them  to-day  either  in  America  or 

elsewhere.  Once 
a  popular  breed, 
this  is  now  the 
least  known  in 
America  of  all 
the  so-called 
common  breeds 
of  sheep.  In 
northern  Eng- 
land, in  the 
border  country, 
is  an  improved 
form  or  family 
known  as  the 
BorderLeicester, 
which  is  the  more  common  type  to-day.  This  differs  from 
the  English  Leicester  in  having  a  more  vigorous  constitution, 
an  especially  lively  carriage  of  head,  and  a  clear  white  face, 
while  the  old  breed  has  a  bluish  tinge  to  the  skin  of  the  face. 
The  Cotswold  sheep  gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in 
early  times  in  England  these  sheep  were  sheltered  in  what 
were  called  "Cots,"  and  were  pastured  on  the  treeless  hills 
known  as  "Wolds."  That  was  in  southwest  England,  where 
this  breed  has  been  kept  for  centuries.  It  is  written  that 
in  1464  King  Edward  IV  gave  permission  to  transport  some 


Figure  150. — Cotswold  ewe,  champion,  1916,  Ohio  State 
Fair.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


350  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Cotswold  sheep  to  Spain.  About  100  years  or  more  ago, 
Cotswold  and  Leicester  flocks  were  mixed  a  great  deal  in 
blood,  by  which  crossing  it  is  said  the  former  was  improved. 
These  sheep  were  brought  to  America  as  early  as  1832,  and 
once  were  very  popular,  especially  in  the  states  east  of 
Illinois  and  north  of  Tennessee.  This  is  a  large,  long-wooled 
breed,  larger  than  the  Leicester,  mature  rams  weighing  from 
250  to  275  pounds,  and  ewes  200  to  225  pounds.  The  head 
is  somewhat  large,  and  is  usually  white,  though  it  may  be 
gray  or  brown  in  tint.  The  nose  is  rather  prominent,  and 
the  ears  incline  to  be  large  and  are  carried  somewhat  heavily. 
If  the  forehead  of  the  Cotswold  is  protected,  long  curly  locks 
of  wool  hang  down  in  front,  often  hiding  the  eyes.  Sheep 
of  this  breed  have  a  broad  breast,  wide,  flat  back  and  broad 
rump,  and  show  a  greater  width  than  depth  of  body  in  the 
best  specimens.  While  the  Cotswold  feeds  very  well,  if  on 
good  pasture  and  under  favorable  conditions,  it  is  not  a  breed 
suited  to  scant  pastures.  The  well-fattened  carcass  is  too 
large,  coarse,  and  fat  for  the  present  demand.  The  fleece, 
which  grades  as  low  quarter-blood  or  braid,  is  coarser  and 
the  curly  locks  larger  than  with  the  Leicester.  Good  Cots- 
wold wool  is  noted  for  its  lustre,  a  quality  much  valued  by 
the  English  breeders.  A  twelve-months'  fleece  is  usually 
from  8  to  10  inches  long,  and  weighs  about  10  pounds. 
There  are  not  many  Cotswold  flocks  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  breed  is  more  popular  in  Canada  than  here.  The 
demand  for  a  smaller  sheep  and  a  different  grade  of  wool 
make  it  difficult  for  this  breed  to  become  popular  in  America. 
The  Lincoln  sheep  comes  from  the  county  of  that  name 
on  the  east  coast  of  England.  This  is  a  very  old  breed,  and 
its  improvement  began  while  Bakewell  was  developing  the 
New  Leicester.  Some  Lincoln  sheep  were  brought  to  Amer- 
ica before  1800,  and  they  have  been  imported  in  a  small 
way  ever  since.  This  is  a  large  breed,  being  somewhat  larger 
than  the  Cotswold,  and  having  much  in  common  with  the 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  351 

latter.  The  head  is  large,  and  is  gray  or  white  in  color,  or 
gray  mixed  with  white.  The  wool  does  not  cover  the  entire 
head,  but  a  small  tuft  of  short  locks  commonly  extends  over 
the  forehead.  The  ears  are  large  and  usually  have  no  wool 
on  them.  The  body  form  is  much  like  that  of  the  Cotswold, 
though  perhaps  deeper  of  rib.  These  sheep  fatten  easily; 
but  the  carcasses  get  too  heavy  and  have  too  much  external 
fat  for  the  present-day  trade,  and  so  the  mutton  is  not 
popular.  The  Lincoln  requires  good  grazing  to  do  its  best, 


Figure  151.     A  group  of  Lincoln  ewes  owned  by  William  Shier,  of  Michigan. 
Photograph  from  the  American  Sheep  Breeder. 

as  it  is  too  heavy  for  the  hill  country.  The  Lincoln  produces 
a  fleece  in  long,  wavy  locks,  which  grades  as  low  quarter- 
blood  or  braid,  and  which  is  not  so  curly  but  has  the  same 
lustre  as  the  Cotswold.  A  year-old  fleece  is  usually  8  inches 
long,  and  may  weigh  10  pounds  or  more.  Lincoln  sheep  have 
grown  in  popularity  in  their  native  home  on  account  of  the 
demand  for  them  in  Argentina,  where  large  numbers  are 
kept.  Very  high  prices  have  been  paid  for  them  in  England, 
and  in  1906  a  ram  sold  for  $7,400,  the  highest  sum  on  record 
for  the  breed.  In  the  United  States,  Lincolns  have  not 
gained  in  favor  and  there  are  very  few  of  these  sheep  in  this 
country,  these  being  mostly  in  Idaho  and  Oregon. 


352 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  Romney  Marsh  sheep,  also  known  as  the  Kent  breed 
in  its  native  home,  originated  in  southeast  England,  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  on  the  marshes  after  which  the  breed  is  named. 
The  land  here  is  low,  rich,  and  moist.  These  sheep  seem 
especially  suited  to  the  local  conditions,  as  they  do  not  suffer 
from  foot  rot  as  do  other  breeds.  The  head  and  legs  are 
white,  the  back  is  broad,  and  the  body  is  of  compact  form. 
These  sheep  fatten  very  well  on  rather  limited  areas,  and 

make  a  fair  grade 
of  mutton.  The 
fleece,  which 
usually  grades 
as  a  quarter- 
blood  combing, 
weighs  about  8 
pounds,  after  a 
year's  growth, 
and  is  in  good 
demand.  Large 
numbers  of  Rom- 
ney Marsh  sheep 

Figure  152.  — Champion    Romney  Marsh  ram.      Owner      are  nOW  f OUnd  in 
Mr.  A.   Matthews,    New    Zealand.       Photograph        A^     ^±'  i 

from  A  merican  Sheep  Breeder.  Argentina,       and 

importations   to 

America  have  been  made  on  a  small  scale.  An  associa- 
tion for  promoting  this  breed  was  organized  at  Chicago  in 
December,  1911.  Since  it  is  essentially  an  untried  breed 
in  America,  its  merits  for  our  conditions  remain  to  be 
shown.  The  Romney  Marsh  belongs  to  the  middle-wool 
class,  producing  a  fleece  of  low  quarter-blood  grade. 

The  Black-faced  Highland  sheep  has  long  been  known 
in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  where  it  grazes  on  the  grass 
and  heather  on  the  highest  mountains.  In  this  breed,  as  in 
the  Dorset,  both  sexes  have  horns,  those  of  the  ram  being 
spiral  and  very  large  and  showy  at  maturity.  Highland 


EREEDS  OF  &HEEP  AND  COATS 


353 


sheep  have  black  or  mottled  black  and  white  faces,  with  no 
wool  beyond  the  forehead.  While  these  sheep,  which  are 
from  small  to  medium  size,  produce  a  very  fine  grade  of 
mutton  on  their  native  pastures,  they  are  slow  growers,  and 
can  not  be  ranked  as  feeders,  as  we  view  sheep  in  America. 
Their  chief  value  lies  in  their  adaptability  to  rough,  hardy 
conditions,  enabling  them  to  live  through  winters  when  most 
other  breeds  would  perish.  The  fleece,  which  grades  as  a 
low  quarter-blood  or  braid,  is  very  coarse,  long,  and  open, 

falling   from    the    body 

in  wavy  locks.  Some 
Black-faced  Highlanders 
have  extremely  coarse 
wool,  with  more  or  less 
hair  about  the  lower 
thighs.  In  disposition 
they  are  wild  and  not 
so  easily  handled  as 
other  breeds.  A  few  of 
these  sheep  have  been 
brought  to  America,  but 
they  are  not  likely  to  meet  with  general  favor. 

The  Angora  goat  derives  its  name  from  the  district  of 
Angora,  in  Asia.  These  goats  were  first  brought  to  America 
in  1849,  when  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  presented  some  to  Dr. 
J.  B.  Davis,  of  South  Carolina.  Large  numbers  are  found 
to-day  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  far  western 
and  southwestern  states.  The  Angora  is  smaller  than  the 
common  goat,  individuals  usually  weighing  from  60  to  100 
pounds.  The  color  is  pure  white.  The  head  has  a  pair  of 
horns  which  slope  backward  and  curve  widely  outward,  with 
some  twist  in  those  of  the  buck,  but  none  in  the  doe's.  The 
ears  are  large,  often  six  inches  long  or  more,  and  droop  down- 
ward slightly.  The  Angora  makes  very  good  mutton,  but 
is  not  valued  for  this  as  much  as  for  its  fleece,  commercially 
12 


Figure    153. — Angora    goat    King    Cromwell. 
Photograph  from  American  Sheep  Breeder. 


354 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


known  as  mohair.  In  fair  specimens  this  covers  the  body 
in  silky,  wavy  ringlets,  which  in  a  year  should  become  about 
10  inches  long.  The  fleece  ought  to  show  a  curl  quite  to  the  skin. 
An  average  weight  is  about  3  pounds.  The  better  grade  of 
goats  produces  a  mohair  that  is  highly  valued  for  making 
certain  kinds  of  dress  goods,  plushes  for  upholstering  work, 
etc.  Angoras  have  been  regarded  with  favor  by  some  for 
clearing  land  of  underbrush.  They  eat  the  tender  twigs 

and  bark,  and 
thus  gradually 
kill  the  bushes. 
Goats  have  been 
used  for  this  pur- 
pose in  northern 
Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, and  else- 
where. 

The  milk  goat 
is  common  all 
over  the  world, 
especially  in  the 
warmer  climates. 
It  has  been  much  improved,  especially  in  Switzerland, 
Germany  and  southern  Europe.  There  are  many  breeds, 
of  which  the  Toggenburg,  Saanen,  Nubian  and  Maltese 
are  noted  as  the  greatest  producers.  The  milk  of  the 
goat  contains  slightly  more  than  5  per  cent  fat,  and  about 
15  per  cent  solids.  It  is  digested  very  easily,  and  is  free 
from  tuberculosis  germs,  as  the  goat  does  not  suffer  from 
this  disease.  Goats  thrive  with  very  ordinary  care,  and 
should  be  kept  more  extensively  the  United  States. 

The  Toggenburg  goat  has  its  native  home  in  the  Toggen- 
burg valley  in  Switzerland.  It  is  a  medium  brown  in  color, 
with  a  white  band  along  down  each  side  of  the  face  from 


Figure  154. — Toggenburg  doe  El  Chivar's  Natalie,  on 
milking  stand.  This  doe  has  a  record  of  2,090  pounds 
of  milk.  Photograph  from  the  owner,  Winthrop 
Howland  of  California. 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS  355 

eyes  to  mouth.  Toggenburgs  are  usually  hornless,  though 
not  always,  are  slender  and  lean  of  body,  and  the  does  often 
possess  udders  of  large  capacity,  many  of  which  produce  4 
or  5  quarts  of  milk  a  day.  The  doe  El  Chivars  Geneva  in  312 
days  produced  2,158  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.37  per  cent  fat. 
The  Saanen  goat  derives  its  name  from  the  Saanen  val- 
ley in  Switzerland,  its  native  home.  This  is  a  white  or 
creamy  colored  goat,  is  regarded  as  hornless,  though  horns 
sometimes  occur,  and  is  usually  covered  with  short  hair, 
excepting  along  the  spine,  thighs  and  flanks,  where  the 
hair  is  longer.  This  breed  is  noted  for  milk  production, 
and  the  best  of  them,  according  to  Peer,  give  from  5  to 
6  quarts  of  excellent  milk  a  day.  The  two-year-old  doe 
Swiss  Echo  produced  2,374  pounds  of  milk  in  less  than  8 
months,  which  is  a  remarkable  record. 

SOME  THINGS  TO  REMEMBER  ABOUT  SHEEP 

1.  The  three  classes  or  groups. 

2.  How  the  Merino  breed  was  introduced  and  promoted  in  America. 

3.  Some  of  the  features  of  Merino  wool. 

4.  Who  Ellman  and  Webb  were,  and  what  they  did. 

5.  What  the  Southdown  is  valued  for  to-day. 

6.  Why  the  Shropshire  is  popular. 

7.  The  origin  of  the  Oxford  Down. 

8.  The  color  markings  of  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Oxford,  and 

Hampshire. 

9.  What  breeds  of  mutton  sheep  have  horns  in  both  sexes. 

10.  Why  the  head  of  the  Cheviot  is  attractive. 

11.  What  breed  of  sheep  Bakewell  improved. 

12.  Why  mutton  from  the  large  breeds  is  not  popular. 

13.  Where  the  Lincoln  is  popular  and  the  prices  it  brings. 

14.  What  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  is,  and  its  use. 

15.  How  much  milk  a  good  milk  goat  will  produce  in  a  year. 

SOME    OTHER    THINGS    WORTH    KNOWING 

15.  What  kind  of  sheep  is  most  common  in  the  state  you  live  in? 
M>.  Who  among  your  friends  has  the  largest  flock  of  pure-bred 
sheep? 

17.  How  many  breeds  can  you  learn  of  within  ten  miles  of  home? 

18.  As  far  as  you  can  learn,  what  is  the  heaviest  fleece  produced 

in  your  county,  and  from  what  breed  and  sex? 

19.  Can  you  get  some  samples  of  wool  of  pure-bred  sheep? 

20.  What  kind  of  sheep  exhibit  do  you  have  at  your   state  fair? 

21.  What  kind  of  goats  are  kept  in  your  neighborhood? 

22.  Are  goats  worth  while  for  family  use? 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 

The  catching  and  holding  of  a  sheep  for  inspection  is 
usually  a  simple  matter,  if  correctly  done.  To  catch  the 
sheep,  seize  a  hind  leg  at  the  hock  or  flank  and  gently  pull 
him  to  the  location  desired.  Never  grasp  and  pull  the  wool, 


Figure  155. — The  points  of  the  sheep.     Reproduced  from  "Judging  Farm 
Animals,"  by  the  author. 

for  the  "more  the  fleece  is  pulled  the  harder  the  sheep  will 
struggle  to  escape.  Next  place  the  left  hand  below  the  jaw, 
palm  up,  and  quietly  hold  the  head  and  throat,  and  then 
reach  back  to  the  right  hind  quarter  with  the  right  hand  and 

356 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP  357 

pull  the  sheep  squarely  in  front  of  your  legs  and  close  to  the 
body.  If  it  is  desired  to  move  the  sheep  forward,  it  will  be 
necessary  only  to  press  gently  forward  with  the  right  hand. 
If  that  effort  is  not  enough,  then  place  the  finger  tips  at  and 
beneath  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  sheep  will  move  forward 
without  trouble.  Sheep  that  are  accustomed  to  handling 
may,  as  a  rule,  easily  be  held  by  placing  the  left  hand  under 
the  lower  jaw  and  holding  the  back  of  the  head  or  neck  with 
the  right  hand.  In  judging- work  at  a  school,  a  small  rope 
halter  will  be  found  useful  in  simplifying  the  matter  of  hold- 
ing and  the  use  of  attendants. 

To  examine  the  under  side  of  the  sheep,  it  is  desirable 
sometimes  to  place  the  animal  on  its  rump.  To  do  so,  one 
should  pass  the  left  hand  under  the  neck  and  grasp  the  right 
forearm.  Then  reach  forward  and  under  the  sheep  with  the 
right  hand  and  grasp  the  right  hind  leg  at  the  hock;  by  a 
slight  pull  of  the  right  hand,  and  a  push  of  the  body  against 
the  sheep,  the  animal  will  naturally  swing  down  upon  its 
rump.  When  in  this  position,  the  sheep  is  held  with  the  left 
hand,  with  the  sheep's  back  resting  against  the  holder's 
knees.  This  operation  becomes  easy  with  a  little  practice. 

How  to  study  the  sheep.  During  much  of  the  year, 
except  for  a  short  time  after  shearing,  perhaps,  the  bodies  of 
sheep  are  covered  with  wool.  This  varies  greatly  in  length, 
but  is  frequently  3J/£  to  4  inches  long.  With  this  covering 
of  wool,  it  is  impossible  to  judge  the  merits  of  the  animal, 
except  with  the  assistance  of  the  hands;  for  the  fleece  covers 
defects  that  may  be  felt,  but  not  so  readily  seen.  Men  who 
exhibit  sheep  usually  trim  the  wool,  or  block  it  out,  as  it 
is  termed,  so  as  to  make  the  animal  look  very  symmetrical 
and  attractive.  While  one  should  survey  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  sheep,  as  in  the  case  of  other  animals,  the  use  of 
the  hands  is  an  added  necessity.  While  examining  a  mut- 
ton sheep,  one  should  keep  the  fingers  of  each  hand  close 
together,  and  then  press  them  flat  on  the  wool,  not  allowing 


358 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


single  fingers  to  stick  into  the  fleece.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  dirt,  do  not  open  the  fleece,  except 
at  places  where  it  naturally  parts  or  breaks  between  two 
locks.  The  back  wool,  especially,  should  be  kept  closed. 
With  the  fingers  one  may  press  the  wool  firmly  enough  to 
feel  the  flesh  below,  to  determine  the  extent  and  uniformity 
of  fattening  or  covering  over  the  frame,  and  whether  the 
wool  hides  defects  of  conformation,  such  as  narrow  back, 
droopy  rump,  etc.  Practice,  of  course,  enables  one  in  time 
to  use  the  hands  with  much  freedom,  without  detriment  to 
the  fleece,  but  inexperienced  persons  should  be  very  careful 
not  to  disturb  the  wool.  The  skin  of  a  sheep  should  be  of 
, .  a  healthy  pink  color.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  this  color  indicates 
the  animal  to  be  in  fine  physi- 
cal condition ;  but  some  breeds 
that  are  noted  feeders,  like  the 
Shropshire  and  Oxford,  have 
dark-colored  skins  oftentimes, 
and  so  it  may  be  said  that 
we  do  not  know  the  real  signif- 
icance of  skin  color.  Yet  the 
skin  in  any  case  should  look 
clean  and  healthy,  and  not  pale 
and  bloodless. 

The  age  of  the  sheep  is  easily  determined  up  to  four  or 
five  years.  A  short  time  after  birth,  the  lamb  has  in  the 
front  of  the  lower  jaw  eight  small,  narrow  teeth,  which  are 
commonly  called  the  milk  teeth.  The  front  part  of  the 
upper  jaw  has  no  teeth,  but  simply  a  tough,  fleshy  pad. 
When  about  12  months  old,  the  two  middle  milk  teeth  drop 
out,  and  two  larger,  permanent  teeth  occupy  the  place.  At 
about  24  months,  two  more  teeth  push  out  two  milk  teeth, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  two  that  came  in  at  12  months.  At 
36  months  two  more  come  in,  and  at  48  months  the  corner 


Figure  156. — Judging  sheep, 
covering  over  the  back, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Feeling 
Photo- 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


359 


teeth  are  replaced  by  larger  permanent  ones.  It  is  easy  to 
tell  the  age  up  to  four  years.  After  that  one  must  do  some 
guessing.  It  is  to  be  noted,  that  with  age  the  teeth  wear 
down  or  break  away  in  the  middle  first,  and  old  teeth  slant 
forward  more  than  those  of  less  age.  The  teeth  should  be 
examined  when  judging  or  buying;  for  they  are  a  guide  to 
age  and  the  condition  for  feeding  and  future  usefulness. 

A  systematic  inspection  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  take 
place  after  the  following  manner.  So  far  as  conformation 
is  concerned,  look  for  the  same  blocky  fullness  of  form  that 
would  be  expected  in  a  fat  steer. 

1.  Survey  far  general  ap- 
pearances in  the  usual 
manner    as    previously 
described    with    horses 
and  cattle. 

2.  Rest  the  lower  jaw  of 
the    sheep   in   the    left 
hand,    and    place   the 
right  about  the  back  of 
the  head  or  upper  part 
of  neck.    Then  raise  the 
point  of  the  jaw  some- 
what, and  part  the  lips 

gently  by  use  of  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
hand.  One  is  thus  enabled  to  inspect  the  front  teeth, 
which  are  found  in  the  lower  jaw  only. 

3.  Inspect  muzzle,  face,  eyes,  forehead,  and  ears. 

4.  View  the  breast  and  position  of  fore  legs  while  stand- 
ing in  front.     Then  with  the  hand  feel  for  thickness 
of  brisket  and  spacing  between  the  legs. 

5.  With  the  right  hand  grasp  the  neck  and  feel  for  its  size 
and  attachment  at  the  head. 

6.  Notice  the  union  of  neck  to  shoulders,  the  covering  of 
the  latter  and  the  position  of  the  blades. 


Figure    157.  —  Judging   mutton   sheep. 
Feelin 


graph 


3  for  width  of  loin, 
y  the  author. 


Photo- 


360 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


7.  Place  the  right  hand  on  the  back,  just  behind  the 
withers,  and  the  left  hand  between  the  legs,  on  the 
floor  of  the  chest.  One  is  thus  better  able  to  secure 
an  estimate  of  the  depth  of  body. 

8.  Press  the  hands  on  the  crops 
and  front  flanks,  to  deter- 
mine thickness  of  chest. 

9.  Press  firmly  along  the  back 
with  one  hand,  the  fingers 
pointing  in  the  direction  of 
the  neck,  to  determine  the 
covering    of    flesh.      With 
both  hands  get  the  breadth 
and  character  of  the  cover- 
ing of  back  and  loin. 

10.  Place  the   fingers   of   the 
hands   over   the   hips  and 

note  their  covering  of  flesh  and  distance  apart. 

11.  After    examining     the 
hips,  draw  the  hands  on 
down  to  the  rump,  and 
feel  its  length,  breadth, 
position,  and  covering  of 
flesh.     With    the    right 
hand,  grasp  the  point  of 
rump   and   note  width, 
position,  and  covering  of 
the  root  of  the  tail. 

12.  Grasp  the  thigh,  usually 
termed  leg  of  mutton, 
with  the  hands,  the  left 


Figure  158. — Judging  mutton  sheep. 
Feeling  condition  at  the  dock. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 


Figure   159. — Judging  mutton  sheep. 
Feeling  the  leg  of  mutton.     Photo- 


graph  by  the  author" 
hand  with  open  thumb  taking  in  one  side  of  the  leg, 
and  the  right  hand  and  open  thumb  grasping  the  other 
side.  Thus  by  freely  moving  the  hands  about  the 
leg,  one  may  determine  fullness  of  hind  flank,  the 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP  361 

thickness  of  muscle,  fullness  of  twist,  and  size  of  leg. 

13.  Place  the  left  hand  on  the  rump  at  tail  and  right  hand 
between  the  thighs  at  the  twist,  and  estimate  the 
depth  of  hind  quarters. 

14.  With  the  palms  of  the  hands  facing  each  other,  press 
against  the  outside  of  thighs,  to  determine  whether  or 
not  the  hind  parts  are  thick. 

15.  Step  back  a  few  feet  and  notice  position  of  hocks  and 
placing  of  hind  legs  and  feet. 

16.  From  one  side,  view  position  of  legs  and  feet. 

In  the  examination  of  fat  mutton  sheep,  no  great  em- 
phasis is  placed  on  the  covering  and  kind  of  wool.  The 
butcher  values  the  wool,  but,  in  buying,  it  receives  slight  at- 


Figure  160. — Three  types  of  Merinoes,  (a)  on  right,   (b)  in  center  and   (.c)   on 
left.     Photograph  by  author. 

tention.  In  the  show  ring,  most  mutton  judges  examine  the 
wool  of  fat  sheep  scarcely  at  all.  If  judging  breeds,  then 
the  wool  must  be  examined  as  well  as  the  frame  and  cover- 
ing of  flesh.  Nine  points  are  allowed  wool  in  the  following 
score  card  for  fat  sheep  of  the  mutton  type. 

The  method  of  judging  fine-wool  sheep  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  mutton  type.  In  the  case  of  classes 
A  and  B,  the  hands  are  scarcely  used,  excepting  to  part  and 
inspect  the  wool  on  different  parts  of  the  body.  In  other 
words,  the  hand  serves  only  in  studying  the  fleece.  In  ex- 


362 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  SHEEP  OF  MUTTON  TYPE 


Scale  of  points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


AGE Number  of  permanent  teeth 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:    34  points. 

WEIGHT,  score  according  to  age 6 

FOEM,  low  set,  medium  long,  broad,  deep,    sym- 
metrical    10 

QUALITY,  hair    and   wool   fine;    bone    neat;    skin 

healthy;  features  refined 

CONDITION,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  in 

valuable  parts.      Note    especially  back,  loin, 

ribs,  and  root  of  tail 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK:    7  Points. 

MUZZLE,  fine;   lips  thin;   mouth   and   nostrils  of 

good  size 

EYES,  large  bright,  placid 1 

FACE,  short,  features  well  defined 

FOREHEAD,  broad  and  full 

EARS,  fine,  carried  alert 

NECK,  thick,  short,  smooth,  blending  nicely  at 

shoulder 2 

FORE  QUARTERS,:    7  Points. 

SHOULDERS,  smooth,    compact    on    top,     nicely 

covered  with  flesh 4 

BRISKET,  thick  and  prominent,  extending  in  front 

of  legs 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart;  shank 

fine;  feet  well  placed 1 

BODY:    27  Points. 

CHEST,  wide,  deep,  comparatively  large  girth ....  5 

BACK,  level,  medium  long,  wide,  smoothly  fleshed  8 

LOIN,  broad,  long,  thick  fleshed 

RIBS,  well  sprung,  long,  close  together,  smoothly 

covered 

FLANKS,  low,  thick,  furnishing  straight  underlines 
HIND  QUARTERS:    16  Points. 

HIPS,  smooth,  level,  medium  wide  apart 2 

RUMP,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail-head,  smoothly 

fleshed 5 

THIGHS,  thickly  and  fully  fleshed 5 

TWIST,  plump,  deep,  wide  angled 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong,  shank  fine 1 

WOOL:    9  Points. 

QUALITY,  fine,  soft,  uniform  over  body 

QUANTITY,  dense,  even,  of  fair  length  for  age 

CONDITION,      bright,      clean,     sound,     moderate 

amount  yolk 3 

Total  points.  .  100 


amining  this,  the  locks  should  be  separated  on  the  shoulder, 
back,  and  thigh,  and  compared  in  length,  quantity,  and 
quality.  With  the  hands  one  may  feel  to  determine  the 
softness  and  density  of  covering.  Density  may  also  be  seen 
with  the  eye,  as  shown  in  the  covering  of  the  head,  the  belly, 
and  legs,  as  well  as  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  out- 
side of  the  fleece.  When  wool  production  is  of  special 
importance,  examinations  of  the  bare  spots  on  the  belly  next 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


363 


to  the  legs,  and  the  general  under  covering,  are  essential. 
This  requires  placing  the  sheep  on  the  rump.  This  position 
allows  not  only  the  wool  covering  to  be  studied,  but  the  full- 
ness of  breast  and  the  condition  of  the  feet  may  also  be 
noted.  In  the  examination  of  the  fine-wool  fleece,  look  for 
a  light-colored  yolk  that  should  be  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  fleece.  Quite  often  the  yolk  will  accumulate  in 
spots  or  streaks,  giving  an  uneven  character  to  its  dis- 
tribution. This  feature  is  most  likely  to  happen  with  fleeces 
containing  a  large  amount  of  yolk. 

The  score  card  for  the  Delaine  or  Class  C  Merino  is  here- 
with given  on 
page  364,  and 
contains  the  scale 
of  points  that 
can  be  most  com- 
monly used  with 
fine- wool  sheep. 

In  judging 
this  type  one 
must  consider 
the  form  as  ap- 
proaching very 
closely  to  that  of 
the  ideal  mutton 
sheep.  The  fact  is  that  the  C  type  is  a  general-purpose  Merino, 
with  mutton  an  important  feature.  Yet  one  need  not  ex- 
pect to  find  as  much  thickness  of  chest,  breadth  of  back, 
fullness  of  quarter,  or  covering  of  flesh,  as  with  a  Southdown 
or  other  more  highly  developed  mutton  breed. 

Things  to  emphasize  in  a  study  of  the  Class  C  type. 

1.  The  head  should  be  short  and  broad  at  forehead,  with 
a  slight  dish  of  face  in  the  ewes,  and  a  fullness  of  nose 
with  the  rams.  Slight  wrinkles  often  occur  over  the 
nose,  which  should  be  covered  with  fine,  silky  hair. 


Figure  161. — Inspecting  the  wool  on  the  side, 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


364 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DELAINE  OR  CLASS  C  MERINO  SHEEP 


Scale  of  points 


Perfect 
score 


Stu- 
dent's 
score 


AGE Number  of  permanent  teeth 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:    24  Points. 

WEIGHT,  score  according  to  age.    Mature  rams 

150  Ibs.,  ewes  125  Ibs 3 

FORM,    low    compact,     symmetrical,     uniformly 

covered  with  flesh 7 

QUALITY,    bone    and    wool   fine;    skin   pink   and 

healthy 7 

CONDITION,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  of  moder- 
ate thickness .  , 7 

HEAD  AND  NECK:    7  Points. 

MUZZLE,  broad;  mouth  and  nostrils  good  size; 

lips  thin 1 

EYES,  bright,  of  good  size,  placid 

FACE,  short,  broad  between  eyes 1 

FOREHEAD,  broad .  1 

EARS,  medium  to  small,  set  wide  apart,  covered 

with  silky  hair 1 

NECK,  short  on  top,  long  below,  smoothly  at- 
tached    2 

FORE  QUARTERS:    12  Points. 

SHOULDERS,  well  placed 2 

BREAST,  deep  and  medium  thick 

BRISKET,  carried  well  forward,  with  some  breadth 

and  fold  or  apron 2 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong,  well  set;  arm  full; 
shank  smooth;  feet  of  good  horn  and  point- 
ing straight  forward 3 

BODY:    15  Points. 

CHEST,  broad,  deep,  full  behind  shoulders 

BACK,  straight  and  medium  wide 

LOIN,  strong  and  muscular 

RIBS,  well  sprung  and  deep 3 

FLANKS,  low,  making  straight  underline 1 

HIND  QUARTERS:    13  Points. 

HIPS,  smooth,  not  too  wide  apart 2 

RUMP,  long,  level,  moderately  wide 

THIGHS,  straight,  short,  strong,  stifle  full;  feet  of 
good  horn,  and  pointing  straight  forward  .... 
WOOL:    29  Points. 

QUALITY,  fiber  fine,  with  close  and  uniform  crimp, 

free  of  weak  fiber  or  hair 10 

DENSITY,  compact  all  over  body 7 

LENGTH  of  fiber  uniform,  at  least  23^  inches  for  12 
months  growth 

CONDITION,  rich  and  soft  in  handling,  with  moder- 
ate amount  of  well  distributed  yolk;  free  of. 
foreign  matter 5 


Total  points .  . 


100 


The  ears  also  should  have  a  covering  of  fine  hair. 
Excepting  the  muzzle,  nose,  and  ears,  the  head  should 
be  well  covered  with  wool.  Bareness  of  the  face  is 
regarded  as  very  objectionable  by  Merino  critics. 
2.  Favor  shortness  of  top  of  neck,  with  no  heavy  folds 
or  excess  of  apron  below  at  the  breast. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SHEEP 


365 


3.  The  tendency  is  towards  narrowness  at  the  withers 
and  fore  ribs  with  sag  of  back.    Thickness  is  desirable 
here,  with  not  too  prominent  a  shoulder. 

4.  A  peaked,  droopy  rump  is  a  common  Merino  charac- 
teristic, but  is  very  ob- 
jectionable, and  should 

be  severely  scored. 

5.  Look  for  a  thick,  well  de- 
veloped leg  of  mutton. 

6.  See  that  the  hocks  are 
straight,   and   that  the 
sheep  stands  well  on  all 
four  legs.    Defective  po- 
sition is  not  infrequent. 

7.  Merino  sheep  have  pcor- 
er  feet  than  any  other 
breed,  and  require  care- 
ful attention.     The  toes  frequently  grow  to  one  side 

or  are  too  long,  and  the  horn 
grows  under  so  as  to  give  the 
foot  a  bad  position. 

In  judging  breeding  sheep 
of  any  class,  the  same  essential 
features  must  be  considered 
that  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed in  preceding  pages. 

A  heavy  condition  of  flesh 
is  objectionable,  a  muscular 
animal  in  good  health  being 
most  desirable.  Sex  affects  the 
character  of  head  and  neck. 


Figure  162. — Judging  Merino  sheep. 
Examining  the  back  locks.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


Figure    163. — Judging   Merino  sheep. 
Inspecting  thigh  wool.     Photograph 


by  the  author. 

With  ewes,  some  length  and  refinement  of  these  parts  must 
prevail,  while  rams  must  show  a  larger,  heavier,  bolder  type 
of  face  and  eye  than  the  ewes,  and  a  thick  muscular  neck. 
The  Merino  rams,  as  a  rule,  have  heavy  horns  at  maturity, 


366 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


while  the  females  are  hornless.  With  Dorset  sheep,  the  ewes 
have  a  slender,  one-curve  horn;  while  the  rams  have  a  heav- 
ier, different  type  of  horn,  of  spiral  form.  Hardly  as  much 
compactness  is  sought  with  breeding  sheep  as  with  those  for 
fattening  purposes.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 

the  fleece  in  judging  breeding 
stock.  Each  breed  is  char- 
acterized by  a  type  of  fleece 
that  careful  judges  recognize, 
although  the  staple  of  two  dif- 
ferent breeds  may  approach 
each  other  in  grade,  as,  for 
example,  Shropshire  and  Ox- 
ford. The  age,  constitution, 
and  general  health  should  be 
considered,  with  trueness  to 


Figure  164. —  Judging  Merino  sheep 
Inspecting  belly  wool.  Photograph 
by  the  author. 


breed    type    and 
characteristics. 


strong    sex 


IN  MAKING  A  STUDY  OF  SHEEP 

1.  How  should  the  animal  be  caught  and  held? 

2.  What  is  the  correct  method  of  examining  the  fleece? 

3.  How  do  you  use  the  hands  in  determining  covering  of  flesh? 

4.  Describe  the  method  of  inspecting  a  leg  of  mutton. 

5.  Where  on  the  body  are  the  different  grades  of  wool  found? 

6.  Describe  types  A,  B,  and  C. 

7.  How  should  the  fine- wool  type  be  examined? 

8.  How  do  the  scales  of  points  of  mutton  and  fine-wool  sheep 

especially  differ? 

9.  What  kind  of  defects  of  the  feet  may  occur  with  the  Merino? 

10.  How  do  breeding  sheep  differ  from  others  in  character? 

IF  YOU  ARE  INTERESTED  IN  SHEEP 

11.  Use  the  score  card  at  home,  if  you  have  sheep. 

12.  Compare  several  animals  on  the  following  points: 

(a)  The  sex  character  shown  in  head  and  neck. 

(b)  Amount  and  quality  of  wool. 

(c)  Covering  of  flesh. 

(d)  Thickness  of  chest. 

(e)  Character  of  rump  and  hind  legs. 

13.  In  shearing  season,  judge  one  or  more  animals  before,  and  again 

after  the  fleece  has  been  removed. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 


FEEDING  SHEEP 

The  adaptability  of  sheep  to  feeding  under  very  different 
surroundings  is  remarkable.  We  find  them  thriving  un- 
der the  most  variable  conditions,  subsisting  on  the  simplest 
fare.  Sheep  are  found  on  the  comparatively  barren  islands  off 
the  North  British  coast,  on  the  grassy  uplands  of  Scotland, 
and  on  the  rich  meadows  of  central  England.  They  thrive  on 
the  wide  stretches  of  more  or  less  arid  lands  of  the  western 
United  States.  In  Australia  they  are  the  only  domestic  ani- 
mals of  consequence  over  vast  areas  of  desert  range;  while 
on  the  far-away  Falkland  Islands  in  the  South  Atlantic,  near 
to  the  antarctic  circle,  sheep  husbandry  has  long  been  the 
chief  industry.  Sheep  respond  well  to  good  feed  and  care. 
They  should,  therefore,  be  given  proper  attention. 

MODIFIED    WOLFF-LEHMANN    FEEDING    STANDARDS    FOR    SHEEP 


Class  of  sheep 

Per  day  1,000  Ibs.  live  weight. 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible 
crude 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

(a)  Fattening  lambs. 

Weight  50-70  Ibs.  .  . 
"      70-90    "    
"     90-110"    
(b)  Maintaining  mature  sheep 
Coarse  wool 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1:5.0-6.0 
1:6.7-7.2 
1:7.0-8.5 

1:8.0-9.1 
1:7.5-8.5 
1:5.6-6.5 

27-30 
28-31 
27-31 

18-23 
20-26 
23-27 

3.1-3.3 
2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 

1.1-1.3 
1.4-1.6 
2.6-2.9 

19-22 
20-23 
19-23 

11-13 
12-14 
18-20 

Fine  wool  

(c)  Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs 

The  feeding  standards  for  sheep  are  not  in  as  general 
use  as  conditions  might  justify.  The  simplicity  of  diet  uni- 
versally recognized  as  suited  to  successful  sheep  husbandry 
no  doubt  very  generally  meets  the  needs  of  these  animals. 
Under  conditions  of  arable  farming,  and  dry-lot  feeding, 

367 


368  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

however,  it  will  be  wise  to  recognize  the  requirements  set 
forth  in  the  previous  table  arranged  from  the  modified 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards  given  by  Henry  and  Morrison.* 

The  important  features  of  this  table  are  in  harmony  with 
those  applied  to  other  classes  of  live  stock,  that  is,  as  the 
period  of  fattening  increases  less  protein  is  required,  and 
the  nutritive  ratio  is  gradually  widened.  It  is  also  interest- 
ing to  note  that,  under  conditions  of  fattening,  lambs  of 
1,000  pounds  live  weight,  require  less  protein  than  fatten- 
ing pigs,  but  somewhat  more  than  fattening  steers;  but 
the  same  relationship  in  total  solids  applies  to  these  three 
groups  of  animals. 

The  effects  of  age  on  the  growth  of  sheep  is  quite  com- 
parable with  that  of  other  animals.  The  first  year  the 
growth  is  most  rapid,  and  gains  in  weight  are  made  more 
slowly  thereafter  until  maturity  is  reached.  Coffey  quotes 
a  French  investigator,  Senequier,  f  who  observed  the  weights 
of  ten  ewes  from  birth  to  maturity  and  found  that  the  most 
rapid  gain  in  weight  was  during  the  first  two  months,  while 
three  fourths  of  the  increase  was  made  the  first  year.  At 
the  fifth  month  about  one  half  the  total  mature  weight  was 
attained,  while  between  the  eighth  and  ninth  months  three 
fourths  of  the  weight  was  reached.  During  the  second  year 
the  rate  of  gain  was  still  diminished,  and  continued  falling 
off  from  the  twenty-fifth  month  to  maturity.  Lambs  are 
most  popular  for  feeding,  as  they  generally  respond  best  to 
feed,  and  so  are  the  logical  animals  to  be  fed.  Yearlings  and 
wethers  are  relatively  scarce  and  tend  to  feed  into  heavy 
mutton,  which  is  not  popular  on  the  American  market. 

The  form  of  food  to  be  fed  sheep  naturally  depends 
upon  the  class  of  animals  and  conditions  surrounding  them. 
A  fine  type  of  roughage  such  as  alfalfa,  for  example,  is  more 
easily  handled  in  the  small  mouth  of  the  sheep  than  is 
heavy,  coarse  material.  The  finer  legumes  and  hay  are, 


*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 

t  Productive  Sheep  Husbandry,  1918. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  369 

therefore,  preferable  to  the  heavier  ones.  It  is  rarely  neces- 
sary to  cut  or  chaff  roughage  for  sheep.  Roots  and  cab- 
bage, however,  should  be  sliced,  for  they  can  be  fed  to  best 
advantage  either  alone  or  mixed  with  grain  or  chaffed  hay. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  grind  grain  for  mature  sheep,  for  they 
digest  entire  seeds  very  effectively.  Young  lambs,  on  the 
contrary,  should  be  fed  cracked  or  ground  feed.  Where  lin- 
seed cake  is  to  be  used,  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  purchase 
"pea"  size  for  sheep,  for  this  form  is  palatable,  is  not  likely 
to  be  adulterated,  and  does  not  gum  up  in  the  mouth  as 
may  happen  with  the  meal. 

The  influence  of  breed  in  feeding  sheep.  In  general 
the  large  breeds  make  the  greatest  daily  gains  in  weight, 
and  the  fine  wools  the  least.  Feeding  trials  at  the  Iowa 
station  showed  that  wethers  of  the  long-wool  breeds  did 
not  consume  quite  so  much  grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain  in 
live  weight  as  did  the  lighter-weight  breeds,  although  the 
Oxford  Down,  which  attains  heavy  weight,  consumed  essen- 
tially a  maximum  amount  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  gain. 

The  proportion  of  grain  to  roughage  for  sheep  very 
naturally  will  depend  upon  conditions.  When  pastures  are 
good,  it  is  not  usually  necessary  to  feed  breeding  sheep  grain, 
although  in  the  case  of  nursing  ewes  an  exception  may  be 
made.  In  the  dry  lot,  when  roughage  and  grain  are  used, 
and  fattening  is  in  progress,  the  weight  of  roughage,  as  a 
rule,  exceeds  that  of  the  grain.  Reports  on  feeding  experi- 
ments, nevertheless,  show  plenty  of  examples  with  a  con- 
trary result.  Henry  and  Morrison  in  reporting  on  17  experi- 
mental lots,  including  1,180  lambs  being  fattened  on  corn,* 
show  that  where  unlimited  corn  was  fed,  it  required  400 
pounds  of  grain  and  436  pounds  of  hay  to  make  100  pounds 
of  gain,  while,  in  the  case  of  a  limited  corn  feed,  it  required 
but  288  pounds  of  grain  and  655  pounds  of  hay  for  100 
pounds  of  gain.  At  the  Illinois  station  Coffey  "found  that 
it  was  possible  in  a  period  of  98  days  to  feed  100  pounds  of 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 


370  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

corn  to  every  86  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay.  This  ration  pro- 
duced a  prime  market  finish  and  was  satisfactory  in  all 
respects  except  that  it  required  close  watching  at  times  to 
keep  the  lambs  from  going  'off  feed'."  Prof.  Coffey  also 
calls  attention*  to  the  fact  that  "lambs  fed  100  pounds  of 
corn  to  every  203  pounds  of  hay  for  a  period  of  98  days 
were  graded  as  prime." 

FEEDING  THE  BREEDING  FLOCK 
The  breeding  flock  is  represented  by  the  ewes,  one  or 
more  service  rams,  and  the  lambs  reserved  for  flock  increase 
or  sale.     Such  stock  should  be  kept  in  attractive,  vigorous 
condition,  but  not  fattened  to  any  marked  extent. 


Figure  165. — Oxford  Down  ewes  on  a  field  of  rape  in  England.     Note  the 
hurdle  fencing.  Photograph  by  the  author. 

Feeding  and  caring  for  the  breeding  ewe  require  watch- 
ful attention  from  the  shepherd.  The  ewes  to  be  reserved  for 
breeding  should  be  carefully  selected  during  the  summer, 
when  on  pasture.  If  ewes  are  to  be  brought  in  for  winter 
shelter,  they  should  be  kept  on  pasture  or  forage  crops  as 
late  in  the  fall  as  possible.  Any  good  standard  pasture 
grass  will  suit  their  needs;  but,  if  rape  or  green  legumes  can 
be  had,  they  will  prove  very  satisfactory.  Rape  forage 
makes  an  unexcelled  pasture  for  sheep  of  any  kind,  and 
they  may  be  turned  in  any  time  after  the  plants  have  at- 
tained a  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  But  very  little  grain 

*Productive  Sheep  Husbandry,  1918. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  371 

should  be  given  with  good  pasture  or  forage.  The  ewes 
should  lamb  ordinarily  any  time  after  January  first,  accord- 
ing to  location,  and  condition  of  keep.  Lambing  is  logically 
earlier  in  the  South  than  in  the  North.  In  and  about  lati- 
tude 40°  North,  many  lambs  come  in  February  and  March. 

Ewes  that  are  to  lamb  should  be  accustomed  to  a  vigor- 
ous outdoor  life,  and  also  to  clover  hay,  alfalfa  or  roots,  and 
little  or  no  grain  should  be  given  until  about  a  month  before 
lambing.  Even  then,  if  in  good  form,  but  quarter  to  half 
a  pound  of  grain  a  day  will  be  necessary,  bran  or  oats,  and 
a  little  oil  cake  being  very  satisfactory.  Prof.  Frank  Klein- 
heinz  recommends  a  mixture  of  one  and  one  half  part  oats 
and  one  part  bran  for  ewes  about  to  lamb.*  Just  prior  to 
lambing,  the  udder  should  be  closely  watched  to  see  that  it 
is  in  good  shape,  and  any  wool  that  may  interfere  with  the 
nursing  should  be  trimmed  off.  The  locks  about  the  thighs 
and  tail-head  that  tend  to  become  foul  with  excrement, 
should  also  be  trimmed  away.  At  lambing,  the  ewe  should, 
if  practicable,  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  flock  and 
given  quiet  quarters  where  she  will  not  be  disturbed  and 
where  she  may  be  assisted  during  lambing,  if  necessary. 
Her  feed,  after  lambing,  for  three  or  four  days  may  well  be 
a  little  bran,  which  is  a  valuable  laxative.  After  this,  in 
addition  to  such  good  roughage  as  may  be  available,  pref- 
erably a  legume,  she  may  be  fed  concentrates.  Good, 
bright,  well  ripened  corn  silage,  not  too  acid,  fed  at  the  rate 
of  2  pounds  a  day  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight,  makes 
a  valuable  succulent  feed.  A  grain  ration  of  1  part  shelled 
corn  and  2  parts  oats,  with  10  per  cent  linseed  cake  added, 
is  recommended.  The  ewe  of  average  size,  say  140  pounds, 
rarely  needs  over  half  a  pound  a  day  of  this  grain  feed. 

Feeding  and  caring  for  the  lamb  demand  most  watch- 
ful attention.  As  soon  as  it  is  dropped  the  shepherd  should 
see  that  the  lamb  is  cleaned,  especially  about  the  head. 
Sometimes  lambs  appear  somewhat  smothered  and  lacking 

*Sheep  Management,  1911. 


372 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


in  life,  and  in  this  case  the  shepherd  should  blow  gently  in 
the  mouth,  and  he  also  may  move  the  front  legs  apart,  and 
then  together,  alternately,  to  stimulate  breathing.  Soon 
after  birth,  the  lamb  should  stand  up,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
it  will  want  to  nurse.  This  operation  the  shepherd  may 
assist  the  first  time,  perhaps,  by  helping  support  the  lamb 
and  guiding  its  mouth  to  one  of  the  teats.  Thereafter  the 
lamb  will  probably  gain  strength  rapidly,  and  nurse  as  de- 
sired. If  the  mother  disowns  the  lamb,  she  should  be  tied 

in  a  small  pen 
where  she  will  be 
unable  to  inter- 
fere with  her  off- 
spring's nursing. 
If  the  lamb  gets 
badly  chilled,  it 
may  be  warmed 
by  inserting  all 
but  the  head  in 
warm  but  not 
hot  water,  and 
kept  there  until 
circulation  is  re- 
stored, after 
which  it  should 
be  taken  out  and 
rubbed  dry  and 
then  placed  with  the  ewe  in  a  comfortable  temperature. 

The  udder  of  the  ewe  should  be  watched  carefully. 
Sometimes  it  gets  caked  and  inflamed,  and  again  she  may 
produce  more  milk  than  the  lamb  can  use.  The  caked 
udder  should  be  bathed,  with  hot  applications,  then  rubbed 
dry,  and  the  milk  drawn  off.  It  may  also  be  painted  with 
tincture  of  iodine  several  times,  but  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  blister  the  udder.  Lambs  begin  to  nibble  at  grain 


Figure  166. — "Feed  my  lambs."     John,  XXI,  15.  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  373 

in  ten  or  twelve  days,  and  from  then  on  their  appetite  for 
such  food  increases.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  ground  corn, 
oats  and  bran,  and  one  tenth  part  linseed  meal,  makes  an 
excellent  feed  for  young  lambs.  Later  the  corn  and  oats 
may  be  fed  unground.  In  the  West  barley  or  Kafir  corn 
may  replace  ordinary  corn,  if  desired.  Lambs  soon  take  to 
roughage  of  a  palatable  sort,  like  fine  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  a 
bright  leafy  hay.  What  is  known  as  a  lamb-creep  should 
be  made  in  the  pen,  by  partitioning  off  a  space,  into  which 
the  lambs  can  creep,  in  which  special  feed  may  be  placed  for 
them  that  can  not  be  reached  by  the  ewes.  When  the  lamb 
is  four  weeks  or  so  old,  it  may  be  eating  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  grain  a  day,  while  when  two  months  old  this  may  be 
increased  to  three  fourths  of  a  pound  daily.  Lambs  are  often 
weaned  when  about  four  or  five  months  old.  They  should 
then  be  separated  from  the  dams,  and  given  plenty  of  good 
feed,  on  pasture  or  dry  lot,  as  seems  best.  If  they  are  to  be 
marketed,  they  should  be  fed  grain  until  sold  and  shipped. 
The  feeding  and  care  of  the  rams  are  comparatively  sim- 
ple. The  ram  lambs  should  be  separated  from  the  ewe  lambs, 
and  given  such  attention,  that  they  may  grow  into  strong, 
muscular  individuals.  During  the  season  they  should  have 
excellent  pasture  or  forage,  with  not  much  if  any  grain.  In 
the  late  fall,  when  they  go  into  winter  quarters,  they  may  be 
fed  preferably  some  legume  and  a  small  ration  of  equal 
parts  of  corn  and  oats.  A  light  feed  of  silage  is  also  excellent. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  in  feeding  roots  to  rams,  as  they 
tend  to  create  a  lime  deposit,  known  as  calculi,  in  the  kid- 
neys, frequently  causing  death.  In  the  feeding  of  more 
mature  rams,  plenty  of  good  legume  roughage,  and  a  light 
feed  of  4  parts  of  oats,  2  parts  of  corn  and  1  of  linseed  cake, 
is  recommended.  The  important  thing  is  to  keep  the  rams 
in  strong  condition,  but  not  fat.  A  fully  matured  ram,  even 
in  breeding  season,  should  rarely  need  over  one  pound  of 
grain  a  day,  and  half  this  amount  may  do. 


374 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


FATTENING  SHEEP 

Rations  for  fattening  lambs.  Lambs  are  fattened  on 
various  feeds,  but  the  most  popular  ration  in  the  corn-pro- 
ducing sections  is  one  of  corn  with  legumes.  At  the  Illinois 
station  Prof.  Coffey  fed  various  combinations  of  clover  and 
corn  to  fattening  lambs.  He  secured  his  best  gains  in  a 
98-day  experiment,  with  western  lambs  averaging  65  pounds, 
feeding  daily  1.3  Ib.  shelled  corn  and  1.3  Ib.  clover  hay.  To 
make  100  pounds  of  gain  with  this  ration  required  432 
pounds  of  corn  and  449  pounds  of  clover.  The  average 
daily  gain  was  0.295  pound.  At  the  Purdue  station  lambs 
fed  daily  1.54  pound  corn  silage,  0.64  pound  clover  hay  and 
1.10  pound  concentrates,  consisting  of  7  parts  shelled  corn 


Figure   167. — Western  lambs  in  an  eastern  feed  lot.     Photograph  from  the 
National  Stockman  and  Farmer. 

and  1  part  cottonseed  meal,  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  0.28 
pound  from  Oct.  28  to  Jan.  26.*  To  make  100  pounds  of 
gain  it  required  393  pounds  of  concentrates,  228  pounds  of 
clover  hay,  and  548  pounds  of  silage.  In  a  comparison  of 
corn,  alfalfa,  and  pea  silage  with  barley,  alfalfa  and  silage 
fed  lambs  at  the  Wyoming  station,  there  was  an  average 
daily  gain  of  0.25  pound  for  the  corn  lot  and  0.23  pound  for 
the  barley-fed  lot,  with  the  cost  in  favor  of  the  former,  f  In 

*Bulletin  221,  Sept.  1918,  Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
tBulletin  109  Wyoming  Station,  November,  1915. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  375 

experiments  in  fattening  range  lambs  by  the  Texas  station, 
excellent  results  were  secured  from  feeding  cottonseed  meal, 
cottonseed  hulls,  milo  and  feterita  chops,  and  sorghum  from 
milo  and  feterita.*  In  the  state  of  Colorado,  and  especially 
in  the  San  Luis  valley,  large  numbers  of  lambs  are  each  year 
turned  on  to  fields  of  peas  containing  a  small  per  cent  of  oats 
or  barley,  where  they  fatten  in  from  70  to  120  days.  Many 
Colorado  lambs  are  fattened  on  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  also. 

The  fattening  of  yearlings  or  wethers  is  not  so  extensively 
conducted  as  it  was  formerly.  The  tendency  is  to  turn  the 
sheep  off  as  fat  lambs,  as  the  heavier-weight  wethers  are 
unpopular  sellers.  In  some  markets  it  is  difficult  to  sell 
them  at  all.  Even  in  the  British  market  large  joints  no 
longer  meet  with  the  favor  they  enjoyed  prior  to  the  World 
War.  In  fattening  heavy  sheep,  the  gains  made  will  largely 
depend  on  previous  condition  of  flesh  and  whether  or  not 
the  teeth  are  in  good  shape.  The  cost  of  gain  in  fattening 
sheep  of  the  older  class  will  exceed  those  made  on  lambs, 
while  the  selling  price  will  be  less. 

The  feeding  of  winter,  or  hot-house,  lambs,  is  a  special- 
ized industry  in  a  limited  way  in  some  sections  of  the  eastern 
United  States.  If  the  ewes  lamb  in  November  and  Decem- 
ber, the  lambs  will  go  on  market  in  10  or  12  weeks,  weighing 
50  to  60  pounds.  Dorset  Horn,  Tunis,  and  Merino  ewes 
are  used,  with  dark-faced  rams  like  the  Hampshire,  South- 
down or  Shropshire  for  sires.  It  is  important  that  the  ewes 
kept  produce  plenty  of  milk.  The  lambs  should  be  taught 
to  eat  grain  as  soon  as  possible  that  they  be  well  started  at 
two  or  three  weeks  of  age.  The  grain  for  the  first  month 
should  be  broken  or  cracked,  but  after  that  time  whole  grain 
may  be  fed.  Early  lambs  relish  shelled  corn,  and  this  with 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  will  give  good  results.  Some  variety 
of  grain,  however,  with  a  bit  of  molasses  mixed  with  it,  will 
prove  appetizing.  The  following  ration  is  recommended  f  by 

*Bulletin  186  Texas  Station,  March,  1916. 

tHot  House  or  Winter  Lamb  Raising   upon   Canadian  Farms,  Pamphlet  No.  11. 
Dominion  Department  of  Agriculture,  1915. 


376 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  168. — Hothouse  lambs  on  farm  of  G.  M.  Wilber,  Ohio.     Photograph  by 
the  author. 

a  winter  lamb  raiser  in  eastern  Canada:  by  weight  1  part 
each  of  barley,  oats  and  cracked  corn,  and  2  parts  of  bran. 
Salting  sheep  is  a  common  practice  where  due  consider- 
ation is  given  the  needs  of  these  animals.  Many  flock- 
masters  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  keep  salt  in  small  boxes 
in  the  pens  or  feed  lot  where  it  is  always  available  to  the 


Figure  169. — Salting  a  flock  of  W.  U.  Noble's  Southdowns.     This  is  an  ideal 
woods  pasture  for  sheep.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


FEEDIXQ  SHEEP  377 

flock.  This  is  a  good  plan,  for  then  the  sheep  are  not  likely 
to  eat  more  than  they  really  need.  According  to  Kellner,* 
an  ordinary  mature  sheep  should  have  from  one  eighth  to 
one  fourth  ounce  of  salt  a  day,  and,  in  case  the  food  is 
difficult  of  digestion,  the  amount  of  salt  may  be  increased 
to  a  half  ounce. 

Water  for  sheep  is  essential,  although  the  strange  impres- 
sion seems  to  prevail  in  some  quarters  that  sheep  do  not 
need  water.  It  is  true  that  sheep  will  go  without  water 
longer  than  other  farm  animals,  especially  when  on  pasture; 
but  they  unquestionably  do  best  when  they  have  an  un- 
limited supply.  A  variety  of  conditions  affects  the  body 
demands  for  water,  such  as  temperature,  kind  of  food,  con- 
dition of  shelter,  and  covering  of  wool.  According  to  Henry 
and  Morrison  f  a  sheep  needs  from  one  to  six  quarts  of  water 
daily,  according  to  feed,  temperature,  and  weather. 

The  use  of  the  self-feeder  with  sheep  has  not  proven 
generally  satisfactory.  Most  of  the  feeding  experiments 
conducted  with  the  self-feeder  have  shown  that  more  con- 
centrates are  eaten  when  self-fed  than  with  ordinary  feed- 
ing, and  the  cost  of  gains  in  weight  is  consequently  too 
great.  On  the  basis  of  three  years  of  trial  with  self-feeders 
at  the  Michigan  station,  Prof.  Mumford  writes :§  "Fattening 
lambs  by  means  of  a  self-feeder  is  an  expensive  practice,  and 
economy  of  production  requires  more  attention  to  the  varia- 
tions in  the  appetites  of  the  animals  than  can  be  given  by 
this  method."  At  the  Nebraska  station,  Prof.  Gramlich 
found  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  containing  corn  and  oil  meal 
in  comparison  with  a  heavy  feed  of  corn  supplemented  with 
alfalfa  hay  did  not  prove  economical.  It  resulted  in  an  in- 
creased gain,  a  greater  consumption  of  corn  and  concentrates, 
but  a  much  higher  cost  per  100  pounds  gain.t 

*Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,  O.  Kellner,  1910. 

tFeeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 

§  Bulletin  128  Michigan  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 

t  Bulletin  170,  Univ.  of  Nebraska  Exp.  Station,  1918. 


378  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

SOME    THINGS    WORTH    REMEMBERING    ABOUT   FEEDING 

SHEEP 

1.  Their  adaptability  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions. 

2.  The  relationship  of  age  to  growth. 

3.  The  condition  of  preparation  of  the  food. 

4.  The  proportion  of  grain  to  roughage  that  is  desirable. 

5.  The  amount  of  grain  necessary  for  a  ewe  before  and  after 

lambing. 

6.  How  to  restore  a  chilled  lamb. 

7.  Why  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  in  feeding  roots  to  rams. 

8.  How  much  silage  should  be  fed  daily  to  fattening  lambs. 

9.  Why  it  is  not  desirable  to  fatten  yearlings. 

10.  To  what  extent  salt  should  be  fed. 

INTERESTING  OBSERVATIONS  TO  MAKE  IN  THE  FEED  LOT 

11.  Are  the  feeds  carefully  selected  for  the  sheep? 

12.  Are  feeding  standards  used  in  your  vicinity? 

13.  Note  if  roots  or  cabbage  are  fed,  and  how  prepared. 

14.  Who  pastures  on  rape,  and  with  what  results. 

15.  Who  feeds  sheep  silage,  and  with  what  result. 

16.  How  many  shepherds  use  lamb  creeps  in  your  vicinity. 

17.  Secure  samples  of  several  rations  used  in  fattening. 

18.  Ascertain  what  arrangements  are  made  for  watering  sheep  in 

flocks  in  the  neighborhood. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE  CARE  OF  SHEEP 

The  establishment  of  a  flock  of  sheep  requires  deciding 
upon  the  type  or  kind  to  be  kept  and  the  initial  number  with 
which  to  begin.  As  a  rule,  pure-bred  sheep  may  be  pur- 
chased at  a  modest  price,  and,  for  one  who  loves  animals,  a 
flock  of  pure  breeding  is  to  be  recommended.  To  keep  the 
breed  most  common  in  the  neighborhood  is  preferable,  for 
thus  one  secures  a  larger  opportunity  both  to  buy  and  sell 
than  by  keeping  an  uncommon  breed.  In  the  eastern  United 
States  from  15  to  25  ewes  will  be  enough  with  which  to  be- 
gin. Then,  with  experience,  the  flock  may  be  increased  to 
fit  local  conditions.  On  the  average  small  farm,  however, 
a  flock  of  50  ewes  will  do  better  than  a  larger  number.  West 
of  the  Mississippi  river  on  the  larger  farms  and  the  range, 
sheep  husbandry  is  a  special  commercial  proposition,  in  which 
the  flock,  divided  into  groups  or  "bands,"  as  they  say  in  the 
West,  may  number  from  hundreds  into  thousands.  The 
ewes  to  be  selected  should  be  uniform  in  type,  have  good 
breed  character,  show  strong  feminine  sex,  and  give  evidence 
of  shearing  well.  A  first-class  ram  should  head  the  flock, 
strong  in  masculinity,  but  of  the  same  type  as  the  ewes. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  select  a  really  good  ram, 
both  in  individual  merit  and  pedigree. 

Grouping  the  flock  of  sheep  according  to  age  and  sex  is 
important.  After  weaning,  the  ewe  lambs  should  be  fed  by 
themselves,  the  ram  lambs  and  wethers  being  kept  by  them- 
selves for  special  attention  and  feeding.  The  yearling  ewes 
also  require  individual  attention  as  they  come  to  breeding 
age.  The  ewes  with  lambs  at  foot  run  together,  and  should 
be  by  themselves;  but,  when  the  lambs  are  weaned,  the  dams 

379 


380  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

are  given  separate  pasture  and  shed  room.  The  service 
rams  are  best  handled  by  themselves.  Although  subject  to 
certain  oversight,  they  may  run  with  the  ewe  flock  when  the 
ewes  have  no  lambs  at  foot.  This  grouping  of  the  flock  is 
in  keeping  with  the  most  careful  management,  but  circum- 
stances alter  cases.  Each  shepherd  must,  therefore,  handle 
his  flock  as  best  he  can. 

Methods  of  marking  sheep,  so  that  they  may  be  identi- 
fied without  question,  are  in  general  use  in  pure-bred  flocks. 
There  are  various  methods  of  marking,  as  by  metal  ear  tags, 
tattooing  within  the  ear,  or  by  stenciling  a  large  number  on 
the  back  or  side  of  the  body.  The  most  common  marking 
system  in  America  is  the  use  of  the  metal  ear  tag.  These 
tags  are  of  band  iron,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  and 
an  inch  long,  on  which  are  stamped  such  initials  or  name, 
and  numbers  as  may  be  desired.  A  special  ear  punch  goes 
with  the  ear  tag,  with  which  a  hole  is  punched  in  the  ear. 
Then  the  tag  is  inserted  through  the  hole,  when  the  ends 
are  pressed  together  with  the  punch,  thus  making  a  good 
fastening.  These  tags  tear  out  easily  if  fastened  in  the  ends 
or  lower  part  of  the  ears,  if  caught  in  wire  fencing  or  else- 
where; but,  if  put  in  the  top  of  the  ear,  they  are  not  likely 
to  tear  out.  Lambs  should  be  tagged  early.  Prof.  Frank 

Kleinheinz,  of  Wisconsin,  says:* 

"It  is  a  common  statement  among  some  sheep  breeders  that  lambs 
should  not  be  marked  when  very  young,  because  the  ear  label,  they 
believe,  will  make  the  lamb's  ear  hang  downward  instead  of  remaining 
erect.  This  idea  is  false.  At  this  station  (Wisconsin),  all  lambs  are 
marked  either  the  first  or  second  day  after  birth,  and  they  surely  carry 
their  ears  just  as  high  and  erect  as  if  they  had  no  labels  in  them." 

A  tattoo  system  is  extensively  used  among  British  flock- 
masters.  A  series  of  needle  points  within  a  punch-head, 
arranged  to  form  desired  numbers,  prick  the  skin  within  the 
ear,  after  which  India  ink  is  rubbed  well  into  the  punctures. 
On  white  ears  this  ink  produces  permanent  bluish  figures. 
A  purple  ink  is  used  on  black  ears.  The  tattoo  system  is 
not  uniformly  satisfactory,  because  the  ink  is  not  always 

*Sheep  Management,  1911. 


THE  CARE  OF  SHEEP  381 

well  applied,  and  the  numbers  are  lacking  in  distinctness.  In 
speaking  of  the  "brist-mark,"  commonly  used  in  England 
and  Scotland,  W.  Sutherland*  says: 

"The  brist  mark  which  is  put  on  the  sheep  immediately  after  they 
are  shorn,  usually  consists  of  the  initial  letter,  or  letters,  of  the  owners' 
name, — the  stamp  being  formed  of  stout  sheet-iron,  attached  to  a  handle 
about  two  feet  in  length.  Boiling  tar  or  pitch,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  is 
the  substance  generally  employed." 

A  private  flock  book  is  very  important  with  the  pure- 
bred flock.  A  card  catalog  system  may  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose. A  careful  record  in  ink  should  be  kept  in  the  book 
or  on  cards,  giving  the  name  and  private  flock  number  as 
well  as  the  association  registry  number.  It  is  the  common 
custom  to  have  a  private  ear  tag  in  one  ear,  and  the  registry 
number  furnished  by  the  association  in  the  other  ear.  The 
date  of  lambing,  names  and  numbers  of  both  sire  and  dam, 
names  of  breeders,  sources  from  which  obtained,  if  pur- 
chased, and  cost.  Space  should  also  be  provided  for  mak- 
ing record  of  disposal  by  sale  or  otherwise.  Dealers  in 
shepherds'  supplies  sell  str  adard  private  flock  books,  or  one 
may  be  easily  made  by  using  a  wide-paged  record  book. 

Shelter  for  sheep  is  desirable  in  winter,  when  storms  pre- 
vail and  snow  is  abundant.  A  common,  inexpensive  shed, 
open  to  the  South,  will  serve  the  purpose.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  swinging  doors,  which  may  be  hung  inside  overhead, 
and  lowered  in  very  severe  weather.  A  wind-break  of  trees 
often  furnishes  excellent  shelter  in  winter.  On  the  hills  of 
Scotland  where  hundreds  of  thousands  of  sheep  roam  the 
year  round,  no  shelter  is  usually  provided,  excepting  that 
found  in  the  nooks  in  the  valleys.  On  the  western  range 
many  sheep  perish  in  severe  winter  storms  because  of  lack 
of  artificial  shelter.  The  important  thing  is  to  keep  the 
sheep  dry  and  protected  from  snow  and  heavy  winter  winds. 

Exercise  for  sheep  is  essential  under  certain  conditions. 
As  a  rule,  sheep  have  exercise  enough,  but  in  snow-bound 
regions,  they  should,  if  possible,  be  driven  out  into  the  yards 

*Sheep  Farming.      A  treatise  on  sheep,  1892. 


382  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  near-by  fields,  and  caused  to  exercise  by  eating  rough- 
age scattered  about.  Prof.  B.  O.  Severson  recommends* 
at  least  twenty-five  square  feet  of  space  for  each  mature 
sheep.  Mature  stock  rams  should  always  have  plenty  of 
exercise,  and  be  kept  in  muscular,  vigorous  condition. 
Breeding  ewes  that  have  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  will 
drop  stronger  lambs  than  will  those  that  are  kept  closely 
housed  and  not  exercised.  During  summer,  when  on  pas- 
ture or  grazing  forage  crops,  sheep,  as  a  rule,  get  plenty  of 


Figure  170. — The  interior  of  a  model  sheep  barn,  showing  feed  racks,  on  the 
estate  of  Oakleigh  Thome  of  New  York.     Photograph  from  Mr.  Thome. 

exercise;  but,  during  the  season  when  they  are  often  more 
or  less  penned  up,  exercise  should  be  provided. 

Dipping  of  sheep  is  a  necessity  in  all  well  regulated  flocks, 
in  order  to  kill  ticks,  scabies,  or  lice.  Standard  sheep  dips 
are  sold  in  all  countries  where  sheep  husbandry  is  carefully 
managed.  Those  most  commonly  used  in  America  are  coal 
tar  or  tobacco  products.  A  metal  dipping  tank  may  be 
purchased  from  manufacturers  of  shepherds'  supplies  or  of 
regular  water  tank  manufacturers.  A  tank  may  easily  be 
made  of  cement  that  will  render  the  best  of  service.  The 

*Sheep  Raising,  Extension  Circular  49,  (1916),  Penn.  State  College. 


THE  CARE  OF  SHEEP  383 

tank  is  usually  set  about  two  feet  in  the  ground,  and  rises 
about  two  -and  one  half  feet  above  the  surface.  A  width  of 
22  inches  at  the  top,  and  12  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  a 
length  of  10  feet  at  the  top  and  6  feet  at  the  bottom,  with 
one  end  having  an  inclined  rise  of  45  degrees,  on  which  a 
metal  ladder  or  concrete,  non-slipping  steps  may  be  laid, 
gives  the  proportions  for  a  common  farm  flock.  The  tank 
is  filled  to  a  depth  of  about  3  feet  with  a  2  to  5  per  cent 
lukewarm  solution,  according  to  the  dip  used.  A  run- 
way should  lead  up  to  the  vertical  end  of  the  tank,  while 
at  the  other  end  a  drainage  platform  should  be  provided,  so 
that  the  dip  dripping  from  the  sheep  will  run  back  in  the 
tank.  The  sheep  is  dropped  into  the  tank  and  entirely 
submerged,  the  head  being  pushed  under  for  an  instant. 
The  sheep  is  then  left  in  the  dip  about  a  minute,  after  which 
it  is  driven  up  the  incline  to  the  drainage  platform.  When 
the  flock  is  reasonably  free  from  ticks  or  lice,  one  dipping  in 
the  spring,  following  shearing,  and  another  in  the  fall,  prior 
to  going  into  winter  quarters,  will  answer.  If  the  sheep  are 
very  ticky  or  lousy,  two  dippings  at  about  14  days  interval 
are  recommended.  The  first  dipping  kills  the  live  parasites, 
but  not  the  eggs;  but  the  second  treatment  will  catch  the 
crop  of  young  ticks  from  the  newly  hatched  eggs. 

Intestinal  parasites  in  sheep,  more  especially  the  stom- 
ach worms  and  tapeworms,  cause  serious  injury  in  many 
flocks  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Stomach  worms  are  about  an  inch  in  length,  of  the  size 
of  a  small  needle,  and  reddish  in  color.  The  female  worm 
lays  a  large  number  of  eggs,  which  pass  off  in  the  manure 
when  the  sheep  are  on  pasture.  Here  the  eggs  may  hatch 
in  as  soon  as  two  days,  and,  in  due  time,  after  going  through 
some  changes,  the  embryo  worms  climb  up  on  the  fresh 
blades  of  grass,  which  are  eaten  by  the  sheep,  and  thus  the 
worms  are  conveyed  to  the  stomach.  This  process  is  re- 
peated over  and  over,  so  that  enormous  quantities  of  the 


384  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

worms  develop  in  the  fourth  or  true  stomach.  Here  the 
worms  suck  blood  from  the  stomach  lining,  and  in  time 
the  sheep  shows  emaciation,  a  whitish  or  "papery"  skin,  the 
fleece  looks  out  of  condition,  and  there  is  diarrhoea  and 
more  or  less  coughing.  Many  lambs  die.  The  stomach 
worm  is  the  most  serious  pest  the  flock-master  has  to  contend 
with  in  the  pasture  regions  where  rain  keeps  the  grass  fresh 
and  green.  The  only  satisfactory  and  practical  method  of 
keeping  this  pest  from  our  flocks  is  by  rotating  pastures,  and 
feeding  forage  crops.  If  the  flock  can  be  placed  on  fresh 
pastures  each  year,  stomach  worms  need  not  be  feared.  For 
medical  treatment,  the  most  universal  one  at  present  is  the 
following:  Dissolve  1  pound  of  pure  crystals  of  copper 
sulphate,  or  blue  stone,  of  good  dark  color,  in  a  gallon  of  hot 
water,  after  which  add  enough  warm  water  to  make  9  gal- 
lons. Preparatory  to  giving  this  substance,  the  sheep  should 
be  kept  off  feed  during  the  night,  treated  the  next  morning, 
"on  an  empty  stomach,"  and  not  given  water  for  from  12 
to  24  hours  after  dosing.  About  a  tablespoonful  is  a  dose 
for  a  lamb  4  months  or  so  old,  to  be  increased  by  one  half 
for  a  6  months  lamb,  while  a  mature  sheep  may  be  given  2 
tablespoonfuls.  The  medicine  is  given  with  a  syringe  or 
long-necked  small  bottle.  Treatment  should  be  repeated  at 
intervals  of  2  weeks,  if  the  flock  seems  badly  affected. 

Tapeworms  are  found  to  some  extent  with  sheep;  but, 
as  a  rule,  are  not  a  serious  source  of  trouble.  The  late  Prof, 
J.  A.  Craig  recommends*  2  drams  of  extract  of  male  shield 
fern  in  a  half  cup  of  milk,  followed  in  2  hours  by  4  ounces 
of  castor  oil;  this  treatment  for  a  mature  sheep,  and  after 
going  without  food  and  water  for  12  to  24  hours. 

Nodular  disease  is  due  to  a  parasite  which  forms  knots 
or  lumps  on  the  insides  of  the  intestines.  Sheep  do  not 
commonly  die  from  this  disease,  but  it  more  or  less  affects 
the  digestion  and  condition  of  the  sheep.  There  is  no  satis- 
factory method  of  treatment. 

*Sheep  Farming  in  America,  1913. 


THE  CARE  OF  SHEBP 


3S5 


Trimming  the  feet  of  sheep  is  frequently  necessary, 
especially  where  the  soil  is  soft  and  moist  and  free  from 
gravel.  Sheep  that  run  on  level,  rich  pasture,  or  that  are 
kept  more  or  less  stabled,  are  troubled  much  .in  that  the 
toes  grow  long  or  otherwise  out  of  shape.  The  foot  of  the 
sheep  is  cloven,  and  the  hoof  consists  of  a  comparatively 
thin  upper  shell  and  a  soft  under  pad.  With  the  small  blade 
of  a  big,  strong  pocket  knife  one  may  easily  trim  the  hoofs 
to  a  proper  shape.  If  careful  attention  is  given,  it  will  re- 
quire comparatively  little  labor  to  keep  the  feet  in  good 


Figure    171. — Students   trimming   hoofs   of   sheep   at   Ohio  State  University. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

shape;  but,  if  neglected,  the  hoofs  may  grow  so  out  of  shape 
as  to  give  the  feet  a  very  bad  posture,  quite  difficult  to  cor- 
rect. Some  breeds,  as  the  Merino,  are  bad  in  this  respect. 
The  docking  of  sheep,  that  is  cutting  off  the  tail  of  the 
young  lamb,  is  a  very  important  practice.  It  should  be 
removed  ten  days  or  so  after  birth.  A  very  satisfactory 
way  is  to  cut  the  tail  off  with  the  large  blade  of  a  sharp 
pocket  knife.  The  lamb  may  be  held  between  the  legs  of 
the  operator.  With  the  left  hand  the  tail  is  raised  slightly 
above  horizontal,  while  at  the  same  time  with  the  right 
hand  the  knife  blade  is  laid  against  the  bare  underside  about 

13 


386 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  body.  Holding  firmly  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  tail,  which  is  then  depressed,  a  quick  up- 
ward stroke  is  given  with  the  knife,  which  easily  separates 
the  tail,  leaving  it  in  the  operator's  hand.  Occasionally  a 
lamb  may  bleed  quite  a  bit,  but  bleeding  usually  stops  soon, 
and  fatalities  are  not  common.  Bleeding  may  be  stopped 
by  tying  a  string  tightly  about  the  stump  for  an  hour  or  so, 
or  the  wound  may  be  seared  with  a  red-hot  iron.  Lambs 
are  also  docked  by  other  methods,  as  chopping  off  with  a 
chisel,  using  a  red-hot  pincers,  etc.  The  method  described, 


Figure  172. — A  good  feed  rack  for  sheep.     Reproduced  from  Farmers'  Bulletin 
810,   United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

however,  is  commonly  used  and  is  very  satisfactory.  The 
wound,  after  it  stops  bleeding,  should  have  an  antiseptic 
applied  to  it,  and  it  should  be  watched  to  see  that  it  heals 
rapidly.  Tails  are  useless,  they  accumulate  filth,  and  on 
the  ewes  interfere  with  breeding  operations.  Docked  sheep 
are  also  more  attractive  than  those  with  tails. 

A  hurdle  for  handling  sheep  is  an  adjustable  or  temporary 
fencing.  Hurdles  are  universally  used  in  Europe  where  sheep 
are  grazed  on  forage  crops  or  valuable  pastures.  Types  of 


THE  CARE  OF  SHEEP 


387 


hurdles  differ  according  to  the  section  of  the  country.  In 
England  one  can  see  them  made  in  woven  sections,  with 
strong  sharpened  stakes  at  intervals,  so  that  an  area  of 
ground  may  be  quickly  enclosed  for  pasturing  a  flock.  In 
the  sheep  pens  hinged,  two-section  paneled  hurdles  are  a 
great  convenience  for  separating  out  individual  sheep  for 
special  purposes.  Also,  when  of  sufficient  length,  hurdles 
may  be  used  to  divide  yards  or  pens  into  smaller  temporary 
quarters.  Hurdles  for  use  in  the  pens  need  not  be  over 


Figure    173. — A   reversible  movable   grain   trough   for  sheep.     Reproduced 
from  Farmers'  Bulletin  810,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

thirty-six  inches  high,  and  should  be  constructed  of  light 
strips  of  lumber,  preferably  about  four  inches  wide,  and 
dressed  down  to  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

Feed  racks  for  sheep  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
seeds  and  chaff  from  hay  or  clover  will  not  readily  get  into 
the  fleece.  They  may  have  either  a  solid  front,  except  a  nar- 
row space  of  4  inches  through  which  the  sjieep  may  gradually 
pull  hay,  or  a  slat  face  in  its  lower  half,  with  solid  board 
front  in  the  upper  part.  A  popular  combination  hay  and 
grain  rack  may  be  like  that  on  page  386,  which  is  a  V-form, 
fitting  into  the  center  of  a  wide  feed  trough,  with  4-inch  strips 


388  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

along  the  front  to  keep  the  grain  from  being  spilled.  Mov- 
able grain  troughs  are  used,  these  being  8  or  10  inches  wide, 
with  4-inch  sidepieces,  and  either  fastened  along  the  sides  of 
the  pens,  or  with  strong  legs  by  which  the  trough  is  elevated 
12  or  14  inches  above  the  floor.  Feed  troughs  should  be 
cleaned  out  daily,  and  frequently  washed  or  scalded,  that 
they  may  be  sweet  and  clean. 

THINGS  WORTH  REMEMBERING  ABOUT  SHEEP 
MANAGEMENT 

1.  How  to  separate  sexes  and  ages  for  special  attention. 

2.  When  to   ear  tag  a  lamb. 

3.  What  to  record  in  the  private  flock  book. 

4.  The  amount  of  space  to  be  allowed  each  sheep  in  shelter. 

5.  What  dip  should  be  used,  and  with  what  per  cent  of  solution. 

6.  How  stomach  worms  develop. 

7.  A  good  system  of  overcoming  stomach  worms. 

8.  How  to  keep  the  feet  in  good  order. 

9.  When  and  how  to  dock  the  lamb. 

10.  A  method  of  keeping  the  wool  free  of  chaff. 

THINGS    WORTH    NOTING    IN    THE    NEIGHBORS'    FLOCKS 

11.  How  are  the  flocks  adjusted  to  the  size  of  the  farms? 

12.  Are  pure-bred  or  scrub  sires  used? 

13.  What  methods  of  marking  are  used? 

14.  Whether  private  flock  books  are  used? 

15.  What  arrangements  are  provided  for  dipping? 

16.  Do  flocks  suffer  from  stomach  worms?     If  so,  what  is  done  to 

prevent  their  occurrence? 

17.  Is  docking  general,  and  how  is  it  performed? 

18.  What  forms  of  feed  racks  and  troughs  are  used? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

The  wild  hog,  or  wild  boar,  as  it  is  usually  called,  of 
which  there  are  different  forms,  is  found  in  widely  separated 
parts  of  the  world.  The  common  wild  boar  from  which  the 
improved  breeds  of  to-day  are  descended  has  been  known  in 
Europe  since  early  historical  times.  This  boar  was  common 
in  England  until  the  time  of  Henry  II,  about  1250.  Boar 
hunting  was  a  favorite  pastime  not  only  with  the  Romans, 
but  even  in  the 
present  day,  in  sec- 
tions of  Germany 
and  eastern 
Europe,  wild  boars 
furnish  royal  sport. 
In  India  these  an- 
imals are  hunted 
extensively  by  men 
on  horseback,  in  a 
sport  called  "pig 
sticking."  The  wild 
hog  is  larger  than 
the  domestic  one, 
and  is  very  swift  and  strong.  It  is  grayish-black  in  color. 
The  rough  skin  is  covered  with  short,  wooly  hair,  over 
which  are  laid  stiff,  coarse  bristles,  especially  along  the 
spine.  When  the  boar  is  angry  or  excited,  these  bristles 
usually  stand  erect.  The  head  is  rather  large,  long,  and 
rough,  and  the  older  animals  have  short,  heavy  tusks  that 
curve  backward  and  away  from  the  snout,  and  which  are  used 
in  fighting.  The  wild  hog  is  native  to  marshy  forests. 

389 


Figure  174. — The  Wild  Boar.     From  photograph 
of  boar  at  Iowa  Experiment  Station. 


390  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  early  forms  of  the  domestic  hog  were  found  in  sev- 
eral countries,  but  more  especially  in  Great  Britain,  south- 
ern Europe,  and  China.  Large  herds  of  swine,  according  to 
Youatt,  were  in  existence  in  England  prior  to  the  Christian 
era.  It  is  said  that  in  Greece  large  droves  were  cared 
for  by  swineherds  perhaps  3,000  years  ago.  In  Italy  these 
animals  -  have  long  been  valued,  and  the  blue-skinned,  thin- 
haired,  long-legged  Neapolitan  hog  of  that  country  was  im- 
ported into  England  perhaps  two  centuries  ago  to  improve 
the  Berkshire  and  the  coarse  white  hogs  of  Great  Britain. 
The  Chinese  produced  a  class  of  white  pigs  that  American 
and  British  sailors  bought  on  their  travels  and  brought  home, 
which  were  used  to  improve  the  native  stock.  Red  hogs 
bred  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  were  also  brought  to  America 
over  a  century  ago,  and  their  blood  mingled  with  our  com- 
mon stock.  From  this  ancestry,  after  long  years  of  careful 
breeding,  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  have  come 
our  present  highly  improved  domestic  breeds  of  swine,  of 
which  the  following  are  of  interest. 

The  Berkshire  hog  is  a  native  of  England,  and  receives 
its  name  because  of  its  early  development  in  the  shire  of 
Berks.  This  is  a  region  of  mild  temperature  in  south-central 
England,  well  suited  to  live  stock.  The  Berkshire  was 
known  as  a  breed  late  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Then  it 
was  black,  or  reddish-brown  in  color  with  black  or  light 
spots,  and  had  large  ears  hanging  down  in  front.  It  was 
small-boned  and  fattened  easily  for  those  times,  and  fre- 
quently weighed  over  a  thousand  pounds.  It  was  improved 
by  the  use  of  Neapolitan  and  Chinese  blood  in  particular. 
In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  it  was  re- 
garded the  best  breed  in  England,  the  Berkshire  was  still 
reddish  or  sandy-colored,  with  more  or  less  black  spots,  but 
was  not  so  large  and  coarse  as  those  of  the  previous  century. 
In  the  early  days,  Richard  Astley  and  Lord  Barrington  did 
much  to  improve  the  Berkshire.  This  hog  was  first  brought 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


391 


to  America  in  1823  by  an  English  farmer  who  lived  in  New 
Jersey.  Soon  after  others  were  imported,  and  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  many  Berkshires  were 
brought  to  America.  In  recent  years,  however,  but  few  of 
these  pigs  have  been  imported  to  this  country. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  features 
of  the  Berkshire  to-day.  The  color  is  black,  with  more  or 
less  white  on  the  face,  feet,  and  tail.  When  all  four  legs, 
the  face,  and  tail  are  marked  thus,  they  are  termed  the  "six 
points."  The  head  is  fairly  short,  the  nose  slightly 


Figure   175. — A   fine  type   of   Berkshire  sow,   champion  at  Ohio  State  Fair. 
Photograph  by  J.   C.   Allen. 

curved  up  or  the  head  "dish-faced,"  as  it  is  termed,  and 
the  ears  are  erect,  pointing  slightly  forward.  The  head  of 
the  Berkshire  is  one  of  its  most  distinctive  breed  features. 
In  size  this  may  be  classed  as  medium,  although  there  are 
individuals  of  superior  breeding  that  attain  a  large  size. 
Boars  often  weigh  500  pounds  and  sows  about  400.  There 
has,  nevertheless,  been  a  feeling  among  corn-belt  pork  pro- 
ducers that  the  Berkshire  lacks  in  size,  and  this  has  affected 
its  popularity  in  face  of  the  present-day  demand  for  big- 
type  hogs.  The  Berkshire  should  have  a  strong  and  fairly 


392  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

wide  back,  but  it  lacks  the  spring  of  rib  of  the  Poland-China 
or  Chester  White,  and  neither  does  it  have  the  high  arch 
as  often  seen  with  representatives  of  some  other  breeds. 
The  average  Berkshire  ham  is  not  so  round  and  thick  as 
with  the  more  distinct  lard-type  hog,  being  narrow  rather 
than  thick  in  the  hind  quarter.  Good  examples  of  the  breed 
are  neat  of  bone  and  stand  well  on  .their  feet.  The  sows  far- 
row medium-sized  litters,  averaging  about  eight  pigs. 

Berkshires  are  fair  feeders,  and  mature  just  moderately 
well  under  ordinary  conditions.  If  not  fed  too  much  corn, 
they  make  a  grade  of  pork  that  is  unsurpassed.  In  the  corn 
belt  of  America,  with  the  feed  and  care  given  by  western 
farmers,  the  Berkshire  may  be  regarded  as  a  lard  hog;  while, 
if  fed  a  variety  of  grain,  with  corn  only  a  moderate  part  of 
the  ration,  it  makes  a  superior  bacon.  It  has  always  been 
a  popular  breed  in  England,  and  for  many  years  held  a 
premier  position  in  America,  but  recently  it  has  lost  much 
of  its  popularity  in  the  great  pork-producing  sections  of  the 
country,  due  to  lack  of  size  and  a  tendency  to  slow  maturity. 
Berkrihires  have  their  greatest  hold  to-day  in  the  eastern 
United  States  and  the  South.  In  spite  of  its  loss  in  prestige, 
the  breed  is  noted  for  its  very  superior  pork,  and  in  carcass 
contests  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  and  at 
the  Smithfield  Show  in  England,  it  has  an  unsurpassed 
record  for  winning  championships. 

The  Poland-China  is  an  American  breed  of  swine  that 
originated  in  southwestern  Ohio  in  Butler  and  Warren 
counties.  This  is  a  rolling  country,  and  produces  extensive 
fields  of  corn,  wheat,  and  grass.  There  is  no  better  region 
in  America  in  which  to  raise  hogs.  In  that  section  the  early 
settlers  kept  large  numbers  of  hogs,  fed  off  their  corn,  and 
drove  the  hogs  overland  to  the  Cincinnati  market.  Differ- 
ent so-called  breeds  came  into  Ohio,  including  the  Russian, 
Byfield,  Big  China,  Irish  Grazier,  and  Berkshire,  the  latter 
being  taken  to  the  state  in  1835.  From  this  mixture,  in 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  393 

time  came  the  Poland-China.  At  first  this  was  a  big,  coarse, 
spotted  hog,  which  was  rated  as  a  good  feeder.  The  coarse- 
ness was  gradually  reduced,  no  doubt  the  Berkshire  blood 
bringing  a  very  great  improvement. 

The  prominent  early  breeders  of  the  Poland-China  were 
the  Shakers  and  other  farmers  in  Warren  county.  John 
Harkrader  did  much  to  improve  them,  and  following  him 
D.  M.  Magie,  of  Butler  county,  no  doubt  did  much  for  the 
breed.  Pigs  of  his  breeding  were  widely  known  at  one  time 


Figure  176.— Poland-China  sow,  Champion  at  1920  Ohio  State  Fair. 
Photograph  by  J.  C.  Allen. 

as  /'Magie  hogs."  During  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  there  were  many  noted  herds  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois.  Although  the  Poland-China  was  long  a  black  and 
white  spotted  breed,  a  change  took  place  in  this  respect, 
and  black,  with  a  small  amount  of  white,  especially  on  face 
and  feet,  became  popular,  and  is  so  to-day. 

In  present  color  markings  the  Poland-China  much  re- 
sembles the  Berkshire.  The  head  is  of  medium  length, 
and  rather  straight  in  the  face;  the  ears,  which  should  be 
somewhat  thin,  point  forward  and  then  break  over  to  form 


394  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

what  is  called  a  lop  ear.  A  good  head  lacks  coarseness,  and 
inclines  to  be  wide  between  the  eyes,  and  is  somewhat  short, 
but  is  never  dished.  The  body  form  of  this  breed  is  quite 
distinctly  its  own,  the  neck  being  short,  the  back  wide  and 
frequently  strongly  arched,  and  the  hams  highly  developed. 
These  features  of  head,  arch  of  back,  and  thickness  of  hams 
are  Poland-China  characteristics.  In  comparatively  recent 
years,  dating  perhaps  with  the  opening  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, there  has  been  a  marked  change  of  type  in  this  breed. 
The  tendency  had  been  to  produce  a  hog  deficient  in  bone, 
that  finished  off  in  feeding  into  too  small  or  tidy  a  type, 
while  the  sows  were  seriously  criticized  for  under  size  and 
small  litters.  This  criticism  resulted  in  a  movement  for 
improvement,  out  of  which  has  come  what  is  known  as  the 
"big-type"  Poland-China,  a  pig  of  pronounced  length  of 
body,  great  arch  of  back,  immense  bone  and  great  weight. 
In  this  connection,  brood  sows  of  marked  increase  of  size 
and  prolificacy  have  been  developed.  In  the  opinion  of  com- 
petent critics,  Poland-China  breeders  are  now  going  to  the 
extreme  on  weight  and  bone,  for  many  boars  have  attained 
weights  of  600  to  700  pounds,  while  a  few  have  even  surpassed 
1,000  pounds.  Unquestionably  the  present-day  movement 
has  revived  interest  in  the  breed,  which  following  the  World 
War  has  undergone  great  popularity.  This  is  one  of  the 
more  important  breeds  in  the  American  corn  belt.  Poland- 
Chinas  put  on  fat  easily,  and  are  noted  as  feeders.  When 
properly  fattened,  the  carcass  dresses  out  well  and  is  pop- 
ular with  butchers. 

The  Spotted  Poland-China  is  a  type  of  this  breed  that 
first  began  to  attract  attention  about  1912,  and  has  since 
grown  much  in  favor  in  the  corn  belt,  especially  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa.  The  body  of  the  Spotted  Poland- 
China  is  of  large  size  at  maturity,  is  covered  with  large  black 
and  white  spots,  is  strong  of  bone  and  hair,  and  impresses 
one  as  being  somewhat  coarse.  This  type  is  promoted  by 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  395 

the  National  Spotted  Poland-China  Breeders'  Association. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  its  size  and  vigor,  its 
adaptability  to  the  feed  lot,  and  the  superiority  of  the  sows 
in  producing  and  raising  large  and  uniform  litters. 

The  Duroc- Jersey  is  a  red  or  sandy-colored  breed  of 
swine  that  no  doubt  obtained  its  special  color  markings 
from  the  coarse  red  hog  brought  from  Africa,  and  from  sandy 
or  reddish  English  hogs,,  such  as  the  Tarn  worth  and  sandy 
Berkshire.  Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  the  famous 
statesman,  imported  some  red  hogs  from  Portugal  in  1852, 
which  reached  America  about  the  time  of  his  death.  In  New 


Figure  177.— A  herd  of  Spotted  Poland-Chinas.     Photograph  by  the  author.. 

Jersey  large  red  hogs  had  been  grown  for  many  years,  where 
they  became  known  as  Jersey  Reds.  In  New  York  state 
another  variety  of  red  pigs  developed  that  were  called 
Durocs.  They  were  smaller  and  finer  in  bone  than  the 
Jersey  Reds.  The  blood  of  these  two  families  was  mingled 
together,  from  which  was  developed  what  we  now  call  the 
Duroc-Jersey.  The  present-day  Duroc-Jersey  is  red  in  color, 
of  which  there  are  various  shades,  ranging  from  sandy  or 
light  red  to  a  cherry  color  or  dark  red.  A  medium  red  shade 
is  the  most  popular.  The  head  has  a  straight  face,  and  the 
ears  lop  over  forward.  The  back  is  usually  slightly  arched 


396  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  the  ribs  are  well  sprung.  The  hams  do  not  show  quite 
the  thickness  of  the  Poland-China,  but  are  not  to  be  regard- 
ed as  specially  deficient  in  this  respect. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  developed  a  great  move- 
ment among  Duroc-Jersey  breeders  to  produce  hogs  of  con- 
siderable scale  and  bone,  of  the  true  big  type,  with 
marked  length  of  body,  strong  arch  of  back,  and  superior 
bone.  The  average  individual  of  the  breed  will  perhaps  be 
somewhat  larger  than  either  Poland-China  or  Chester  White, 


Figure    178. — Duroc-Jersey    boar,    Great    Orion    Sensation,    grand   champion 
National  Swine  Show,   1919,   1921.     Owned  by  Ed.   Kern,  of  Nebraska. 

and  weights  of  mature  boars  are  often  given  at  600  to  800 
pounds,  and  sows  at  500" to  600  pounds.  In  size,  however, 
the  Duroc-Jersey  and  Poland-China  are  in  the  same  class, 
with  more  extremes  to  be  found  in  the  latter  than  the  former. 
Duroc-Jerseys  mature  fairly  early,  and  finish  off  in  fatten- 
ing at  200  to  250  pounds,  at  six  months  of  age.  The  breed 
has  not  thus  far  made  much  of  a  showing  in  carcass  test 
competition.  The  sows  usually  have  large  litters,  this  being 
the  most  prolific  of  the  lard-type  breeds.  Duroc-Jerseys 
are  extremely  popular  in  the  middle-western  states  where 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  397 

corn  is  abundant.  In  fact  this  breed  since  1900  has  had  a 
wonderful  growth  in  public  favor,  and  many  herds  of  Poland- 
Chinas  and  Berkshires  have  given  way  to  the  Duroc-Jersey. 
The  breed  is  widely  distributed  over  America,  but  is  more 
especially  prominent  in  Ohio,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Nebraska,  Mis- 
souri, Minnesota,  Indiana,  and  South  Dakota. 

The  Chester  White  breed  of  hogs  gets  its  name  from 
Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  where  it  has  been  bred  for  a 
great  many  years.  Claims  have  been  made  that  the  early 
colonists  brought  over  coarse  white  pigs  to  Pennsylvania. 
In  1820  a  Captain  Jeffries,  of  West  Chester,  Pennsylvania, 
brought  some  white  hogs  from  England.  Others  of  the  same 
color  also  found  their  way  into  that  section.  White  hogs 
were  brought  to  Ohio  at  an  early  date,  and  the  Todd  fam- 
ily in  that  state  became  noted  for  developing  what  is  known 
as  Todd's  Improved  Chester  White.  During  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  Mr.  L.  B.  Silver,  of  Ohio,  devel- 
oped a  strain  of  this  breed,  which  is  now  known  as  the  Ohio 
Improved  Chester  White.  This  is  frequently  called  the 
O.  I.  C.  hog.  All  these  different  families  or  blood  lines 
represent  the  same  breed,  however,  and  differ  only  in  minor 
details.  The  Chester  White,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  white. 
Occasionally,  small,  black  spots  occur  on  the  skin,  but 
they  are  occasionally  found  in  all  the  white  breeds.  The 
head  rather  resembles  that  of  the  Poland-China,  in  that  the 
face  is  straight  and  the  ears  lopped  over.  The  Chester 
White  is  a  true  lard  type  of  hog.  It  is  a  splendid  feeder, 
and,  when  well  fattened,  carries  a  very  broad,  arched  back 
and  has  an  excellent  ham.  The  quality  of  bone  in  the  legs  is 
frequently  too  fine,  and  mature  animals  often  stand  badly 
on  their  feet.  In  recent  years,  in  keeping  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Poland-China  and  Duroc-Jersey,  breeders  of 
Chester  Whites  have  emphasized  scale,  and  the  tendency 
has  been  to  breed  a  larger,  heavier-boned  hog.  The  Chester 
White  type,  however,  has  not  gone  through  so  great  a  change 


398  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

as  have  the  others,  and  the  extremely  high  back  and  up- 
standing form  has  not  been  so  noticeable  with  this  breed. 
The  usual  run  of  mature  boars  will  weigh  around  600  pounds, 
and  the  sows  500  pounds.  The  sows  farrow  good-sized  lit- 
ters, the  breed  ranking  close  to  the  Duroc-Jersey  in  this 
respect.  Sows  commonly  have  nine  pigs  to  the  litter.  The 
quality  of  pork  is  excellent,  although  inclined  to  have  a  large 
per  cent  of  fat.  In  the  carcass  contests  at  the  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  grade  and  cross-bred  Chester  Whites 


Figure  179. — Chester  White  sow,  Buehler's  Wonder,  grand  champion  National 
Swine  Show,  1921.  Bred  and  shown  by  William  Buehler,  of  Nebraska. 
Photograph  from  Mr.  Buehler. 

have  made  excellent  records.  Chester  Whites  are  widely 
distributed  as  a  breed  in  the  North,  and  especially  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  the  South  any  white  breed  is  unpopular 
on  account  of  color,  white  hogs  blistering  under  the  sun 
more  than  red  or  black  ones.  There  are  many  herds  of 
Chester  White  hogs  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  and  Minnesota, 
and  the  breed  is  well  adapted  to  the  northern  corn  belt. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  399 

The  Hampshire  breed  of  swine  for  many  years  was 
known  in  America  as  the  "Thin  Rind."  It  is  black  hi  color, 
with  a  white  belt  at  the  shoulders  which  encircles  the  body. 
No  one  knows  the  fountain  head  of  these  hogs  in  America. 
In  1904  breeders  of  these  hogs  assumed  that  they  came  from 
Hampshire,  England,  and  adopted  that  name.  In  view  of 
the  fact  that  there  was  an  English  black  breed  of  this  name 
in  Hampshire,  the  author  has  thought  the  selection  of  this 
name  for  the  American  breed  was  unfortunate.  Belted  hogs 


Figure  180.— A  Hampshire  brood  sow.     Bred  and  owned  by  J.  Crouch  &  Son, 
Indiana.     Photograph  from  the  owners. 

have  been  found  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  very 
recent  years,  especially  since  the  World  War,  a  breed  of 
this  sort,  known  as  the  Wessex  Saddle-back  hog,  has  received 
much  attention  in  England,  and  especially  in  south  Hamp- 
shire. The  claim  is  made  by  promoters  of  the  Wessex  that 
it  is  an  old  British  forest  breed. 

For  many  years  "Thin  Rind"  hogs  were  bred  in  a  limited 
way  in  Kentucky,  southern  Indiana,  and  southern  Illinois, 
and  these  were  of  the  bacon  type.  Finally  the  breed  was 


400  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

taken  up  by  men  in  the  corn  section  of  Illinois,  and  it  has 
gradually  changed  in  form  to  a  broader-backed,  thicker  kind, 
more  nearly  of  the  lard  type.  This  transformation  shows  how 
a  corn  diet  will  change  the  form  of  an  animal.  Hampshire 
swine  have  straight  and  medium-long  faces,  especially  with 
the  males,  and  the  ears  vary  from  erect  to  leaning  forward. 
The  back  is  of  medium  width  and  the  body  is  usually  very 
smooth  along  the  sides.  The  hams  lack  fullness,  being  more 
of  the  Berkshire  type  than  of  the  Poland-China.  The 
Hampshire  is  a  good  feeder,  maturing  fairly  early,  and  pro- 
ducing a  carcass  with  an  excellent  proportion  of  lean  meat 
to  fat.  In  carcass  contests,  hogs  of  this  breed  or  its  crosses 
have  usually  made  an  excellent  showing,  and  Hampshire 
pigs  or  their  grades,  find  great  popularity  with  the  butchers. 
This  is  not  a  large  breed,  mature  boars  weighing  around 
500  to  600  pounds,  and  sows  300  to  350  pounds.  The  sows 
are  fairly  prolific,  which  fact  is  a  much-desired  character- 
istic. Hampshires  have  undergone  a  great  wave  of  popu- 
larity, and  the  breed  may  be  classed  as  common,  especially 
in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  South 
Dakota,  Alabama,  and  Georgia. 

The  Large  Yorkshire,  called  in  England  the  "Large 
White,"  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  swine.  Large,  coarse, 
white  hogs  were  bred  in  eastern  and  northeastern  England 
before  distinctions  of  types  and  breeds  were  known.  Eng- 
lish writers  of  over  a  century  ago  refer  to  these  large,  slow- 
maturing,  narrow-backed,  coarse  white  hogs.  They  were 
improved  by  selection  and  breeding,  and  this  work  was  done 
in  part  by  factory  hands  and  laborers  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  Joseph  Tuley  was  prominent  in  this  work. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  belongs  to  the  bacon  class.  As 
grown  to-day,  it  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds.  Boars  at  ma- 
turity often  weigh  700  pounds  or  more,  and  sows  500  pounds. 
The  head  inclines  to  be  a  trifle  long,  from  an  American  point 
of  view,  and  is  sometimes  slightly  dished.  The  ears  should 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  401 

be  carried  erect,  but  with  age  they  usually  incline  forward. 
The  body  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  should  show  considerable 
length  and  have  smooth  deep  sides,  from  which  bacon  may 
be  cut  to  the  best  advantage.  The  back  lacks  the  width 
and  the  ham  the  thickness  of  the  lard  type.  The  legs  often 
appear  long  for  the  depth  of  body.  Large  Yorkshires  do 
not  mature  early  nor  fatten  and  finish  off  so  readily  as  do 
hogs  of  the  lard  type.  They  rather  tend  to  continue  their 
growth  until  they  have  attained  considerable  size  before  lay- 


Figure  181. — Large  Yorkshire  sow,  Ohio  State  Lady  463,  grand  champion, 
Ohio  State  Fair,  1920.     Photograph  by  J.  C.  Allen. 

ing  on  much  fat.  Even  then  they  will  never  fatten  like  our 
lard  hogs,  although  they  will  gain  as  much  or  more  in  weight 
per  day.  This  hog  is  well  adapted  for  grazing  on  clover 
and  other  green  feeds.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is  of  the 
very  best.  More  prime  bacon  is  made  in  Great  Britain  and 
Denmark  from  the  Large  Yorkshire  than  from  any  other 
breed,  the  Danes  making  bacon  production  a  great  industry. 
Large  Yorkshire  sows  are  noted  for  farrowing  many  pigs 
in  a  litter,  this  being  one  of  the  most  prolific  breeds.  On 


402 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


account  of  its  bacon,  this  is  the  leading  breed  in  Great 
Britain  and  Denmark.  In  America,  these  hogs,  though  bred 
for  many  years,  have  never  been  so  popular  as  hogs  of  the 
lard  type.  They  are  bred  in  sections  of  the  North,  espe- 
cially in  Canada,  and  in  the  northwestern  states. 

The  Small  Yorkshire,  known  in  England  as  the  "Small 
White,"  is  of  English  origin.  It  was  developed  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  certain  men  wished  a  small,  very 
fat  type  of  pig.  This  is  distinctly  a  small  breed,  weighing 
at  maturity  about  200  pounds.  The  head  is  often  short  and 
. ,  extremely  dish- 
ed, so  much  so 
that  easy  feed- 
ing is  impossible. 
In  fancy  speci- 
mens the  head 
is  almost  dis- 
torted, the  ears 
are  erect,  the 
neck  short,  back 
very  wide,  hams 
short  and  thick, 
and  legs  short. 
The  Small  Yorkshire  matures  early  and  fattens  easily  for 
its  size,  making  a  very  fat  type  of  pork.  The  sows  are 
not  prolific.  The  breed  has  been  getting  less  and  less  com- 
mon so  that  but  few  are  found  in  America  or  Europe.  There 
is  no  demand  of  commercial  importance  for  it  here  or  abroad, 
and  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  has  recently 
denied  it  a  place  on  its  premium  list. 

The  Tamworth  is  an  old  English  breed  of  extreme  bacon 
type.  Its  native  home  is  central  England,  where  it  was 
known  early  in  the  last  century.  It  is  red  or  chestnut  in 
color  and  of  varying  shades  from  very  light  to  dark.  In 
size  it  is  large,  the  boars  often  weighing  600  pounds  or  more 


Figure  182. — A  Tamworth  gilt  at  the  Ohio  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  403 

and  the  sows  450.  The  head  is  often  undesirably  long  and 
straight.  The  ears  at  maturity  are  large  and  coarse,  and 
lean  heavily  forward.  The  body  is  narrow,  the  depth  of  rib 
is  short,  the  hams  lack  thickness,  and  the  neck  and  legs  are 
long.  It  does  not  fatten  easily,  and  is  slow  to  mature, 
but  produces  excellent  bacon.  The  sows  are  prolific.  There 
are  few  of  this  breed  in  England  or  America.  There  are  a 
few  herds  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  breed  seems 
to  be  gaining  in  favor.  At  the  National  Swine  Show  in  1921, 
there  was  a  large  and  fine  display  of  Tarn  worths. 

The  Cheshire  is  a  medium-sized,  white  breed  of  the  lard 
type,  mostly  bred  in  New  York  state,  the  place  of  its  origin. 
The  breed  originated  about  1855,  with  the  Large  Yorkshire 
as  an  important  blood  line  in  the  parentage.  It  resembles 
what  the  Englishman  calls  the  Middle  White,  which  is  really 
a  more  compact,  broader-backed,  heavier-hammed,  lardier 
type  than  the  Large  Yorkshire.  It  has  a  fair  size,  weighs 
well,  matures  early,  and  feeds  and  fattens  to  advantage. 
The  sows  farrow  comparatively  good-sized  litters.  This  is 
one  of  the  least  known  of  American  hogs. 

DO  YOU  REMEMBER  ABOUT 

1.  The  appearance  of  the  wild  boar? 

2.  How  long  ago  herds  of  swine  were  kept  in  England? 

3.  When  the  Berkshire  was  first  brought  to  America? 

4.  Criticisms  made  of  the  Berkshire? 

5.  Where  the  Poland-China  originated? 

6.  The  Poland-China  as  feeders  and  breeders? 

7.  How  much  mature  Duroc-Jerseys  weigh? 

8.  Who  originated  the  O.  I.  C.  strain  of  Chester  Whites? 

9.  How  packers  value  the  Hampshire  carcass? 

10.  The  large  Yorkshire  as  a  bacon  producer? 

SOME  DESIRABLE  OBSERVATIONS  IN  YOUR  NEIGHBORHOOD 

11.  What   breeds  of  swine  are  most  common   in  your  vicinity  or 

township? 

12.  A  comparison  of  size  of  litters  of  sows  of  different  breeds. 

13.  Are  big  type  pigs  popular  and  profitable  feeders? 

14.  Make  a  map  of  the  distribution  of  some  one  breed  in  your  county. 

15.  If  white  hogs  are  grazed  in  your  vicinity,  do  they  blister? 

16.  Secure  a  breed  scale  of  points,  and  score  one  or  more  pigs  of  some 

breed. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 

Two  distinct  market  types  of  hogs  exist  in  America,  the 
lard  and  the  bacon.  The  lard  type  prevails  in  all  those  sec- 
tions of  North  America  where  corn  is  an  important  farm 
crop.  In  fact,  the  bacon  type  is  produced  in  but  a  small 
way  in  this  country,  and  comparatively  few  are  found  in  the 
market.  The  study  of  the  lard  type  should,  therefore,  re- 
ceive most  attention. 

A  score  card  for  the  fat  hog  may  be  used  in  general  prac- 
tice for  either 
pure-bred  or 
grade  animals. 
The  following 
scale  of  points  is 
given  discussion 
in  the  order  of  its 
arrangement. 

The  weight 
and  size  of  the 
hog  depend  nat- 
urally on  the  age 
and  breeding.  In 
the  general  mar- 
ket, animals  that 
weigh  about  250  pounds  are  most  satisfactory  for  slaughter. 
The  average  weight  of  the  millions  of  hogs  sold  in  Chicago 
stock  yards  is  about  225  pounds.  The  market  demands  dif- 
ferent hogs  for  different  uses,  however,  so  that  all  market 
hogs  are  sorted  somewhat  on  the  basis  of  weight,  condition, 
and  purpose.  For  this  reason,  a  criticism  regarding  weight 

404 


Figure  183. — Two  types  of  pigs,  bacon  on  left  and  lard 
on  right.  Note  difference  in  thickness.  Photograph 
by  the  author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


405 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  HOGS— LARD  TYPE 


Scale  of  Points 


Perfect 
score 


Score 
of  hog 
judged 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE:    34  Points. 

WEIGHT,  score  according  to  age,  175  Ibs.  for  6  mos.;  300  Ibs 

at  one  year 4 

FORM,  broad,  deep,  low,  symmetrical,  compact,  standing 

well  on  feet 10 

QUALITY,  hair  fine;  skin  smooth;  no  coarseness  of  bone. ...  10 

CONDITION,  deep,  firm,  even  covering  flesh,  giving 

smooth  finish 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK:    7  Points. 

SNOUT,  neither  coarse  nor  long 

FACE,  wide  between  eyes;  cheeks  full,  without  wrinkles. . . 

EYES,  mild,  good  size,  to  be  easily  seen 

EARS,  not  coarse,  of  medium  size,  neatly  attached 

JOWL,  smooth,  broad,  full  to  shoulder 

NECK,  thick,  short,  broad  on  top 

FORE  QUARTERS:    12  Points. 

SHOULDERS,  broad,  deep,  full,  smooth,  compact  on  top. ...  6 

BREAST,  wide,  roomy 4 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart,  well  set,  pasterns 

upright,  standing  well  upon  toes 2 

BODY:    32  Points. 

CHEST,  deep,  wide,  large  girth;  flanks,  well  filled 

BACK,   slightly   arched,   very   broad,    thickly   and   evenly 

fleshed 9 

LOIN,  wide  as  back,  full  and  strong S 

SIDES,  fairly  deep,  not  too  long,  smooth,  and  full  from  ham 

to  shoulder 

BELLY,  straight,  wide,  trim,  not  paunchy 4 

FLANKS,  full  and  low 2 

HINDQUARTERS:    15  Points. 

RUMP,  same  width  as  back,  long,  level,  wide 

HAMS,  deep,  wide,  thick,  not  wrinkled,  fleshed  well  to  hock  10 

LEGS,  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart,  well  set;  pasterns 

upright,  strong,  standing  well  on  toes 2 

Total  points 100 


should  take  into  consideration  the  special  purpose  involved. 
At  6  months  of  age  175  pounds  would  be  a  satisfactory 
weight,  while  at  12  months  of  age,  when  fairly  well  fed,  a 
fat  hog  should  weigh  from  300  to  350  pounds. 

The  general  form  of  the  hog  may  be  studied  from  differ- 
ent points  of  view.  A  short  cane  or  stick  is  useful  to  change 
the  position  of  an  animal  in  order  to  observe  it  to  the  best 
advantage.  Hogs  tend  to  keep  the  head  close  to  the  ground, 
and  rarely  stand  with  the  four  legs  in  good  position  beneath 
the  body.  For  these  reasons  it  is  well  to  keep  animals  of 
this  class  more  or  less  in  motion  while  judging.  Width  of 
back  and  depth  of  rib  should  be  noted  from  overhead  or 
from  one  side,  while  a  fullness  of  both  front  and  hind  parts 


406  A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

should  be  easily  seen  from  front  and  rear.  In  this  inspec- 
tion compactness  of  form,  and  quality,  should  be  manifest. 
One  may  easily  determine  the  quality  by  eye  examination, 
but  a  feel  of  the  hair  will  reveal  marked  differences  in  qual- 
ity, that  along  the  neck  and  front  part  of  the  spine  being 
always  the  coarsest.  While  condition  may  be  easily  seen 
and  estimated  by  the  eye,  if  one  will  press  with  the  ends  of 
the  fingers  along  on  the  back  and  sides,  a  better  idea  will  be 
had  of  the  depth  and  evenness  of  covering  and  condition  of 
skin.  In  the  case  of  aged  boars,  there  will  be  noted  a  very 
thick,  coarse  development  of  skin  over  the  shoulders,  known 


Figure   184. — The  points   of  the   hog.     Reproduced   from   "Judging   Farm 
Animals,"  by  the  author. 

as  the  "shields."  This  is  an  inheritance  from  the  wild 
ancestors,  and  really  served  as  a  shield;  for,  when  fighting, 
pigs  strike  with  their  heads  against  the  shoulders  of  the 
opponents.  The  tusks  of  the  boar  can  not  easily  tear  through 
this  shield.  Yet  this  thick,  heavy  covering  of  hide  is  very 
objectionable,  and  the  best  show  animals  do  not  have  it. 
Symmetry  of  form  is  important;  if  the  front  part  of  the  body 
is  thick  and  heavy,  and  the  hind  part  narrow,  the  form  cer- 
tainly will  not  appear  symmetrical  or  well  balanced. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


407 


Quality  in  hogs,  as  in  all  other  animals,  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. This  is  shown  in  the  condition  of  the  hair,  the  size 
of  bone,  and  the  development  of  the  head.  There  should 
be  a  plentiful  coat  of  hair  that  is  neither  very  fine  nor  very 
coarse.  If  too  fine,  lack  of  constitutional  vigor  is  indicated; 
but  heavy  bristles  along  the  back,  tell  us  surely  that 
a  coarse-grained,  low  grade  of  killing  hog  may  be  expected. 
The  quality  of  the  hair  is  an  index  to  the  quality  of  bone. 
Coarse  hair  naturally  goes  with  coarse  bone.  Among  ex- 
perienced swine  breeders,  a  bone  of  fair  size,  yet  not  coarse, 
is  especially  desired.  The  well-fattened  hog  requires  strong 
bones  to  support  the  heavy  body  weight.  A  common  criti- 
cism is  that  pigs  are  too 
small  of  bone  and  lack 
support  of  the  body.  For 
this  reason,  m^ny  breed- 
ers and  feeders  are  look- 
ing for  a  hog  that  has 
plenty  of  size  and  bone, 
without  coarseness.  In 
passing  judgment  on  an- 
imals of  this  class,  one 
must  be  mindful  to  secure 
as  much  size  as  possible, 
consistent  with  quality.  A  large  head  for  the  body,  with 
coarse  thick  ears,  also  indicates  inferior  quality.  Many 
young  hogs  are  too  small  and  refined  for  their  age,  and  never 
mature  into  animals  of  enough  feeding  or  breeding  capacity. 
Excess  of  refinement  is,  therefore,  to  be  avoided. 

The  condition  of  the  hog  relates  to  its  depth  and  even- 
ness of  covering  of  flesh  and  fat.  This  should  be  uniform 
and  smooth,  no  matter  what  the  purpose  of  the  animal. 
One  common  defect,  more  especially  of  the  lard  type,  is  the 
prevalence  of  seams,  or  creases,  on  the  body.  These  are 
particularly  noticeable  about  the  neck  and  the  fleshy  part 


Figure  185. — "The  quality  of  the  hair  is  an 
index  to  the  quality  of  the  bone."  Photo- 
graph by  the  author. 


408  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

under  the  jaws,  known  as  the  jowl,  and  along  the  shoulders 
and  sides.  These  creases  contain  more  or  less  hair  that  is 
hard  to  remove  after  scalding.  In  the  larger  hog-killing 
houses,  the  hair  is  removed  by  automatic  scrapers.  It  can 
easily  be  seen  that  the  more  creases  there  are  on  the  body, 
the  more  difficult  it  will  be  to  remove  the  hair  from  them. 
In  such  cases  hand  work  is  necessary  to  finish  the  job. 
These  seams  are  also  an  indication  of  uneven  fleshing. 

The  head  of  the  hog  varies  so  in  size  and  form,  accord- 
ing to  breed,  that  it  seems  best  to  emphasize  only  certain 
features  that  should  be  common  to  all  breeds  and  grades. 
The  large,  coarse  head  is  an  evidence  of  waste,  hence  buyers 
prefer  a  short  type  of  head,  indicating  smaller  loss  in  this 
portion  in  killing.  Even  with  the  long-headed  breeds,  the 
degree  of  refinement  is  measured  by  length  and  coarseness 
of  snout.  A  narrow  face,  often  seen  on  a  long  head,  indi- 
cates a  poor  feeder  and  mean  disposition.  The  eyes  should 
always  be  easily  seen,  with  the  whites  clearly  showing.  The 
eyes  of  the  hog  of  the  lard  type  tend  to  become  surrounded 
by  excessive  fat,  so  that  the  sight  is  very  poor.  The  ears 
are  good  indicators  of  quality.  They  should  be  easily  car- 
ried, and  not  be  heavy  and  coarse  where  attached  to  the  head. 
None  of  the  lard-type  breeds  naturally  have  coarse  ears. 

The  jowl  of  the  hog  is  the  thick,  fleshy  part  of  the  lower 
jaw  and  throat.  Sometimes  it  is  very  large  and  round,  and 
is  a  great  mass  of  fat.  Often  deep,  hairy  creases  occur  here. 
The  jowl  can  not  be  studied  to  advantage  unless  it  is  both 
seen  and  felt.  If  the  animal  keeps  its  head  close  to  the 
ground,  the  jowl  can  not  be  thoroughly  examined.  The 
jowl  in  its  best  form  is  short,  smooth,  free  of  creases,  and 
firm  to  the  touch. 

The  neck  of  the  hog  should  be  reasonably  short  and 
broad  on  top,  and  blend  smoothly  into  the  shoulders.  A 
common  fault  is  a  thin  neck,  fitting  roughly  in  the  shoulders 
which  stand  out  in  a  prominent  manner  at  the  shoulder  vein. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


409 


Figure  186. — "The  neck  of  the  hog  should  be  reasonably 
short."     Photograph  by  the  author. 


The  shoulders  of  the  hog  vary  considerably.  The  ten- 
dency is  for  them  to  be  heavy  or  coarse,  and  open  on  top, 
the  blades  not  lying  back  in  close.  The  shoulders  are  valu- 
able for  meat, 
and  the  more 
they  are  covered 
with  flesh  the 
better  they  are. 
While  the  breast 
of  the  hog  does 
not  appear  as 
prominent  as 
with  other  ani- 
mals, on  account 
of  the  low  car- 
riage of  the  head, 
if  the  shoulders 
are  placed  right,  the  breast  will  be  wide  and  full  and  the  front 
legs  will  come  down  in  good  form.  By  means  of  the  hand 

one  can  feel  the 
end  of  the  breast 
bone,  which 
should  extend  at 
least  beyond  the 
legs.  Such  a 
breast  develop- 
ment shows  good 
constitution. 

The  legs 
should  be  strong 
and  stand 
straight  and  well 
apart,  a  position  associated  with  a  wide  chest  and  vigorous 
constitution.  The  pasterns  of  the  hog  are  often  found  to 
be  very  weak  and  too  sloping.  At  the  back  of  the  leg, 


Figure  187. — "The  shoulders  of  the  hog  vary  consider- 
ably."    Photograph  by  the  author. 


410 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


just  above  the  pasterns,  are  two  small  toes  that  are  known 
as  dew  claws.  When  the  pasterns  are  too  sloping,  the  dew 
claws  often  touch  the  ground,  showing  a  weakness  of  leg. 
In  the  days  when  hogs  were  driven  overland  to  market,  it 
was  very  important  that  the  legs  should  be  strong,  capable 
of  endurance,  and  weak  pasterns  were  then  very  objection- 
able. While  we  do  not  drive  hogs  .much  to-day,  it  is  still 
necessary  in  many  localities  to  do  so;  and,  whether  driven  or 
not,  the  hog  should  stand  up  strong  on  its  toes  on  short  pas- 
terns, as  an  evidence  of  ability  to  carry  its  weight  well.  If 
it  can  not  do  so,  then  the  pasterns  are  weak.  The  toes  of  the 

hog  should  be 
close  together, 
and  point  direct- 
ly  forward. 
Sometimes,  when 
weak,  they  will 
spread  apart  and 
do  not  have  a 
strong  position. 
Such  feet  are  an 
indication  of  im- 
proper feeding 
and  show  a  lack 
of  bone  and  too  much  forced  growth  of  the  young  pig. 

The  body  of  the  hog  should  show  depth,  width,  and  com- 
pactness. The  chest  should  especially  show  plenty  of  girth. 
If  the  shoulders  are  wide  on  top,  the  chest  below  may  ap- 
pear narrow,  unless  the  fore  flanks  are  very  full.  A  front 
view  displays  the  width  of  chest, 'while  from  the  side  we 
may  note  its  depth  and  fullness  of  flank. 

The  back  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts;  for  here  the 
butcher  secures  the  choice  chops  and  roasts.  The  wider 
and  better  the  condition  of  back  and  loin,  the  more  high- 
class  cuts  the  butcher  will  be  able  to  obtain  from  the  car- 


Figure  188.     "The  legs  should  be  strong,  capable  of 
endurance."     Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


411 


cass.  In  the  older  and  larger  fat  hogs,  the  layer  of  fat  over 
the  back  is  very  thick,  ranging  from  two  to  three  inches. 
Such  animals  are  frequently  referred  to  in  the  market  as 
"fat  backs,"  and  long  strips  of  the  fat  are  cut  from  this  part 
and  rendered  into  lard.  A  wide  back  is  an  indication  not 
only  of  the  condition  of  flesh,  but  also  of  the  capacity  below 
for  the  vital  organs  and  the  digestive  system.  Generally, 
a  long  rib  and  large  chest  capacity  go  with  width  on  top. 
In  inspecting  the  back,  as  viewed  from  one  side,  emphasize 
a  strong  carriage,  with  a  slight 
arching.  Young  pigs  fre- 
quently have  a  depression 
behind  the  shoulders,  which 
fills  up  on  fattening.  A  full, 
strong  development  at  this 
place  is  very  desirable. 

The  sides  of  the  hog 
should  be  fairly  deep  and 
smooth,  and  uniformly  so 
from  front  to  hind  flank. 
This  part  furnishes  the  bacon 
cuts;  hence  a  smooth,  uni- 
form condition  of  flesh  is 
important.  Creases  very 
commonly  occur  along  the 
upper  part  of  the  sides  and 


Figure  189. — "The  layer  of  fat  over  the 
back  is  very  thick.  '  Photograph  by 
the  author. 


give  a  bad  appearance  to  the 
body.  Often  one  may  easily  insert  the  fingers  in  these 
creases.  The  lard  type  does  not  have  a  long  side,  as  a 
rule;  neither  is  it  quite  flat,  as  viewed  from  one  side.  The 
form  tends  to  be  somewhat  oval,  especially  in  hogs  with 
Poland-China,  Duroc- Jersey,  or  Chester  White  blood,  con- 
sequently the  upper  part  of  the  side  projects  some  beyond 
the  lower  portion.  Emphasis  also  should  be  placed  on 
smoothness  of  fleshing,  and  quality  of  skin. 


412 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  190. —  The  back  should  have  a  strong  carriage, 
with  a  slight  arching.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


The  belly  of 
the  hog  should 
suggest  as  little 
waste  as  pos- 
sible. A  paunchy 
condition,  that 
is,  a  round,  sleek 
form,  indicates 
excess  offal.  A 
clean,  straight 
line,  as  viewed 
from  one  side, 
with  full  flanks, 
is  what  is  wanted.  Where  an  excess  of  belly  occurs,  as  in 
the  case  of  old  sows,  buyers  throw  off  a  certain  amount  of 
weight,  or,  as  they  say  in  the  market,  "dock"  the  animals. 

The  hind  quarters  of  the  hog  include  the  rump  and  hams, 
the  most  valuable  part  of  the  carcass.  The  hams  represent 
a  high-priced  and  heavy-weighing  part,  so  that  a  thick,  full 
development  is  here  sought.  Standing  behind  the  hog,  one 
should  note  that  the  width  is  carried  full,  from  the  hips  back 
to  the  end  of  the 
body.  The  thighs 
should  be  wide- 
spread on  the 
outside,  and  very 
thickly  muscled 
between,  with 
the  twist  extend- 
ing low  down 
toward  the 
hocks.  The  tail 
attachment 
should  not  be  set 

T    C* ™™+  ^v^V.  Figure  191. — "The  sides  of  the  hog  should  be  fairly 

.  Great  depth  deep  and  smooth."      Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


413 


of  hams  is  of  prime  importance ;  for,  if  lacking  here,  they 
will  be  deficient  in  the  amount  of  flesh  carried. 

From  one  side,  the  rump  should  be  long  on  top,  level 
rather  than  steep,  and  long  also  from  hip  to  hock.  A  very 
steep  rump  is  often  seen,  with  the  legs  carried  under  the 
body,  thus  furnishing  a  weak  support.  The  steep  rump  does 
not  allow  a  good  position  of  legs.  Side  or  rear  view  should 
show  a  very  meaty  ham,  somewhat  bulging  in  its  lower  part. 
Smoothness  of  covering  of  ham  is  important,  as  wrinkles 
and  uneven  condition  injure  the  value  in  the  meat  trade. 

The  legs  of  the  hog,  as  viewed  in  front,  at  one  side,  and 
from  behind,  should  be  short  and  straight,  and  not  coarse 
of  bone.  The 
front  legs  some- 
times nearly 
touch  at  the 
knees,  giving 
what  is  termed  a 
buck- kneed 
effect.  This  usu- 
ally accompanies 
the  narrow  chest. 
The  hind  legs 
frequently  are 
close  together  at 
the  hocks  with  the  feet  widely  spread  below  the  body.  Such 
a  position  usually  goes  with  a  narrow  thigh,  or  ham.  Pasterns 
and  feet  have  already  been  discussed  in  this  chapter,  and 
need  not  be  referred  to  again,  except  to  emphasize  the.  correct 
position  of  these  parts  as  most  important  in  supporting  a 
heavy-weight  body. 

In  judging  breeding  stock  of  the  lard  type,  the  same 
general  features  are  to  be  considered,  making  exceptions  for 
sex  character  and  a  leaner  condition.  The  mature  male 
requires  a  head  showing  great  vigor  and  masculinity,  with 


Figure  192. — A  good  leg  attitude  of  the  hog. 
graph  by  the  author. 


Photo- 


414 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


a  strong  jaw,  prominent  tusks,  breadth  of  forehead,  a  strong 
neck,  and  some  thickness  of  shoulder.  Most  breeders  also 
prefer  breeding  stock  which  have  very  good  length,  and  are 
not  too  short  and  compact.  More  bone  is  looked  for  in  the 
boar  than  in  the  sow  or  fat  hog.  In  fact,  breeders  rarely 
criticise  a  boar  for  having  too  heavy  bone.  As  has  already 
been  brought  out  in  the  discussion  of  breeds,  big-type  hogs 
have  a  strong  arch  of  back  and  great  length.  A  big-type 
boar  at  12  months  of  age,  for  example,  often  stands  high, 
is  long,  strongly  arched  of  back,  and  appears  short  of  rib  for 
his  length.  With  maturity  he  fills  out,  however,  so  that  he 
really  does  not  seem  especially  leggy  after  all.  The  same 


Figure    193. — "The  brood  sow  should  show  good   size  and  length,  and  have 
a  strong,  well-supported  back."     Photograph   by   the  author. 

may  be  said  for  the  big  type  sow  at  12  to  18  months  of  age. 
Irrespective  of  type,  however,  the  brood  sow  should  show 
good  size  and  length,  and  have  a  strong,  well-supported  back. 
Depth  and  length  are  most  valued  qualities  in  her  case,  as 
these  indicate  large  reproductive  capacity.  Sows  frequently 
are  too  light  in  bone  for  their  weight,  and  this  defect  should 
be  noted.  The  sow  should  be  quiet,  yet  active,  but  not 
nervous  and  excitable.  An  irritable  sow  is  almost  sure  to 
make  a  bad  mother  and  one  does  the  wise  thing  to  dispose 
of  that  kind,  when  such  disposition  is  proven. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE 


415 


THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  HOG 

The  bacon  type  of  hog  is  produced  in  comparatively 
small  numbers  in  the  United  States;  but,  on  account  of  the 
steadily  increasing  demand  for  bacon,  no  doubt  more  hogs 
of  this  sort  will  be  bred  in  the  future  in  this  country. 

A  score  card  for  the  bacon  hog  gives  a  very  good  idea  of 
the  special  features  emphasized  in  this  type. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  BACON  HOGS. 


Scale  of  points 

Perfect 
Score 

Score 
of  hog 
judged 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:    34  Points. 
WEIGHT,  market  hogs  should  weigh  160-220  Jbs  
FORM,  long,  smooth;  level  back;  belly  neat  
QUALITY,  hair  fine;  skin  smooth  and  free  of  wrinkles;  bone 
strong  but  not  coarse;  flesh  firm  
CONDITION,  well  covered  with  firm  flesh,  especially  on  back 
and  loin 

5 
10 

10 

G 

STYLE,  active  and  sprightly,  walking  true,  standing  up  well 
on  toes    . 

3 

HEAD  AND  NECK:   8  Points. 
SNOUT,  medium  long;  face,  broad  at  eyes  

2 

2 

JOWL,  not  very  wide,  muscular,  smooth;  neck  medium  long, 
muscular 

4 

FORE  QUARTERS:    12  Points. 
SHOULDERS,  smooth,  well  laid  in;  breast,  full  
LEGS,    medium   long,    straight,    well   placed,    not   coarse; 
pasterns  erect  and  straight  
BODY:    33  Points. 
BACK,  medium  width,  slight  arch  neck  to  tail;  loin  same 
width,  strong,  full 

9 
3 

11 

RIBS,  well  sprung,  long;  side,  long,  smooth,  medium  deep.  . 
CHEST,  full,  even  with  shoulder;  flanks  full  and  low  
BELLY   firm   trim   thick   not  flabby  or  shrunken 

12 
7 
3 

HIND  QUARTERS:    13  Points. 
RUMP,  same  width  as  back,  long,  level  
HAMS,  full,  not  flabby;  thigh  tapering  toward  hock,  without 
folds  or  wrinkles  ...                                                         ... 

4 
6 

LEGS,  medium  long,  hocks  well  set  apart,  straight,  bone 
good,  pasterns  erect  

3 

Total  score  

100 

Judging  the  bacon  hog  requires  keeping  in  mind  certain 
important  features  wherein  this  type  differs  from  the  lard 
hog.  Bacon  is  the  first  consideration.  This  comes  from  the 
sides;  the  side  that  is  longest  and  smoothest,  with  fair  depth, 
therefore,  is  the  most  valuable.  But  bacon  must  not  be 
heavy  in  fat;  hence  the  condition  of  the  body  must  show 
only  a  moderate  amount  of  flesh.  For  these  reasons,  the 


416 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  194. —  "The  shoulder  of  the  bacon  hoj 
should  be  smooth  and  not  heavy  like  the  larc 
type."  Photograph  by  the  author. 


bacon  hog  shows  a  comparatively  narrow  back,  but  con- 
siderable length  of  body.  Over  the  back  of  the  bacon  hog, 
a  uniform  depth  of  about  one  inch  of  fat  is  ample,  rather  than 
the  ordinary  thickness  of  the  lard  type,  for  a  muscular  car- 
cass with  a  moderate  amount  of  fat  is  what  is  desired. 

The  shoulder 
of  the  bacon  hog 
should  be  smooth, 
and  not  heavy  like 
the  lard  type,  but 
should  nicely 
blend  into  the 
body.  The  thick- 
ness between  the 
shoulders  is  not 
great,  and  a  front 
view  shows  a  relatively  narrower  neck  and  chest  and  longer 
leg,  compared  with  the  lard  type. 

The  ham  of  the  bacon  hog  lacks  in  thickness,  yet  should 
be  long  on  top,  and 
taper  off  into  a  lean 
type,  with  no  great 
amount  of  fat.  From 
a  side  view,  the  ham 
cuts  away  more  on  its 
under  part ;  while  from 
behind,  the  thighs  are 
thin  and  are  usually 
well  split  up  between, 
producing  rather  a 
shallow  twist. 

The  belly  of  the  bacon  hog  should  show  just  as  little 
fullness  as  possible,  consistent  with  being  a  good  feeder. 
Any  evidence  of  paunchiness  or  thickness  here  is  objection- 
able. The  lower  part  of  the  body  line  should  be  smooth  and 


Figure  195. — A  comparison  of  hams  of  bacon  and 
and  lard  type  pigs.     Photograph  by  the  author. 


THE  JUDGING  OF  SWINE  417 

trim,  and  give  evidence  of  the  least  amount  of  offal.     A 
straight,  trim  line  from  front  to  hind  flank  is  desirable. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  bacon  type  is  that  of  a 
narrow,  long-bodied,  smooth-sided,  long-legged  hog,  not  too 
fat  in  any  portion.  The  excessive  length  of  leg,  which  often 
prevails,  is  to  be  criticised;  otherwise  these  features  of  con- 
formation are  very  desirable  and  should  be  maintained. 

AMONG  OTHER  THINGS,  THINK  ABOUT 

1.  Quality  as  an  important  feature  of  the  hog. 

2.  The  occurrence  of  seams,  or  creases,  and  why  objectionable. 

3.  The  pasterns,  past  and  present. 

4.  The  five  features  most  highly  rated  in  the  scale  of  points. 

5.  The  "shield"  and  its  significance. 

6.  The  relation  of  breast  to  shoulder  and  constitution. 

7.  Where  the  most  important  "cuts"  are  found  in  the  carcass. 

8.  Differences  between  breeding  stock  and  that  for  the  butcher. 

9.  The  meaning  of  bacon  type. 

10.  Relation  of  bacon  form  to  offal. 

SOME  NEIGHBORHOOD  INVESTIGATIONS 

11.  Place  on  a  township  map  the  locations  of  market  feeders  of 

hogs. 

12.  Do  feeders  breed  or  purchase  the  stock  fed? 

13.  What  attention  is  given  to  quality  by  men  buying  hogs? 

14.  Does  the  lard  or  the  bacon  type  prevail  in  your  locality? 

15.  Bring  to  class  a  score-card  record  of  some  animal  in  the  home 

herd. 

16.  Organize  a  local  swine-judging  contest. 


14 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
FEEDING  SWINE 

The  production  of  pork  is  a  great  industry  in  America, 
the  United  States  being  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
world  in  this  field  of  live-stock  husbandry.  This  leadership 
is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  pork  is  produced  more  cheaply 
than  any  other  meat,  and  the  average  man  can  feed  and  care 
for  pigs  with  more  satisfaction,  and  better  prospects  of  gain, 
than  in  the  case  of  any  other  farm  animal.  In  the  corn 
belt  hogs  and  corn  seem  a  natural  combination,  so  that  in 
the  great  Mississippi  Valley  swine  husbandry  is  highly  devel- 
oped. By  the  1920  United  States  Census  there  were  almost 
sixty  million  pigs  of  different  ages  in  this  country.  The 
states  having  three  million  or  more  swine  are  the  following, 
in  relative  order:  Iowa  7,864,000;  Illinois  4,640,000;  Mis- 
souri 3,888,000;  Indiana  3,757,000;  Nebraska  3,422,000,  and 
Ohio  3,084,000.  Three  states  were  in  the  two  million  class, 
namely 'Minnesota,  Georgia,  and  Texas. 

The  food  requirements  for  swine  have  been  studied  more 
extensively  perhaps,  than  of  any  other  farm  animal.  This 
fact  is  due  in  part  to  the  ease  with  which  swine  may  be 
handled  and  fed,  and  records  made  of  growth  and  fattening. 
Exact  feeding  standards,  however,  are  not  generally  applied 
in  pork  production.  The  following  standards,  the  modified 
Wolff-Lehmann,  as  given  by  Henry  and  Morrison,*  show  the 
actual  needs  for  fattening  pigs,  and  brood  sows  with  pigs. 

A  study  of  these  standards  makes  clear  that,  as  a  pig 
increases  in  weight  while  fattening,  there  is  a  steady  decline 
in  the  body  requirements  for  dry  matter,  digestible  crude 
protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients,  while  the  nutritive 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 

418 


FEEDING  SWINE 


419 


ratio  steadily  grows  wider.  Digestion  experiments  with 
breeding  swine  during  growth  show  also  the  same  decline 
in  the  need  for  dry  matter,  protein,  and  total  nutrients.  In 
other  words,  the  body  requirements  of  the  pig  in  either 
growth  or  fattening  call  for  a  gradual  lessening  of  the  protein 
in  the  ration  with  an  increase  of  carbohydrates. 

A  DAILY  FEEDING  STANDARD  FOR  SWINE  PER  1,000  LBS.  LIVE  WEIGHT. 


Age  and  condition 

Dry 

matter 

Digestible 
crude 
protein 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Fattening  pigs 
Weight  30-50  Ibs.  .    .  . 
50-100  '      .    .. 
100-150'      .    .. 
150-200  *      .    .. 
200-250  <      .    .. 
250-300  '      .... 
Brood  sows  with  pigs 

Pounds 
46.2-51.0 
37.0-40.8 
32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
25.5-28.1 
22.4-24.8 
20.0-24.0 

Pounds 
7.8-8.5 
5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
3.0-3.4 
2.6-2.9 
2.4-2.7 

Pounds 
41.0-45.4 
32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 
25.8-28.5 
22.7-25.0 
20.0-22.0 
18.0-21.0 

1:4.0-4.5 
1  :5.0-5.6 
1:5.5-6.2 
1:6.2-7.0 
1:6.5-7.3 
1:6.7-7.5 
1  :6.0-7.0 

Figure  196. — Yorkshire  brood  sows  on  an  English  pasture,  owned  by  Sanders 
Spencer,  Holycraft,  St.  Ives,  England.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

The  type  of  food  best  suited  to  the  pig  is  of  a  concentrated 
form.  The  pig  has  a  single  stomach,  rather  limited  in  capac- 
ity, and,  therefore,  it  can  not  consume  roughage  like  the  cow 
or  sheep  with  their  compound  stomachs  and  much  greater 


420  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

relative  capacities.  It  is  true  that  hogs  will  do  well  on  succu- 
lent forage  crops  and  pastures,  but  even  then  the  total 
amount  eaten  is  comparatively  small.  The  older  class  of 
hogs  in  winter  will  eat  the  leafy  roughage  of  alfalfa  or  clover 
to  some  extent,  but  too  much  of  this  should  not  be  fed. 
The  standard  grains,  and  mill  products  are  best  suited 
to  the  digestive  tract  of  the  hog. 

The  preparation  of  the  food  for  swine  has  received  con- 
siderable attention.  Various  experimenters  have  amply 
demonstrated  that  cooking  the  food  for  swine  injures  the 
digestibility  of  the  proteins,  and  that  better  results  are  ob- 
tained by  feeding  raw  rather  than  cooked  food.  Soaking 
grain  may  be  advantageous,  especially  in  the  case  of  old 
corn  that  is  hard  and  dry.  In  comparative  experiments  in 
feeding  soaked  whole  wheat  and  dry  whole  wheat,  conducted 
by  the  author  at  the  Indiana  station,  and  by  Snyder  and 
Burnett  at  the  Nebraska  station,  a  slight  advantage  came 
from  soaking  the  grain.  The  grinding  of  grain  for  hogs  has 
been  somewhat  advantageous.  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry,  of  Wis- 
consin, fed  ground  and  shelled  corn  in  comparison  for  ten 
winters,*  and  found  that  on  the  average  it  required  501  pounds 
of  whole  corn  and  wheat  middlings  for  100  pounds  of  gain, 
and  only  471  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  middlings  for  an  equal 
gain.  Evvard,  of  Iowa,  and  King,  of  Indiana  station,  have 
found  that  no  special  advantage  is  secured  by  grinding  corn 
for  young  pigs,  but  as  they  pass  beyond  3  or  4  months  of  age 
somewhat  better  gains  are  made  from  ground  or  soaked  grain. 
Corn-and-cob  meal  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  the  pig, 
but,  if  fed,  the  cob  should  be  ground  fine. 

The  relationship  of  age  of  pigs  to  digestibility  of  food  and 
gains  in  weight  has  been  shown  in  digestion  experiments 
conducted  by  Prof.  Evvard,  of  Iowa.  He  found  that  a  pig 
weighing  60  pounds  digests  corn  fed  in  different  ways  with 
somewhat  more  efficiency  than  one  weighing  200  pounds. 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 


FEEDING  SWINE  421 

It  has  long  been  known  that,  as  pigs  grow  older,  other  things 
being  equal,  it  requires  more  grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain  in 
live  weight.  If  we  apply  the  relationship  of  age  to  weight, 
then  of  a  large  number  of  animals  fed  at  different  weights,  as 
shown  by  Henry  and  Morrison,*  the  amount  of  food  required 
for  100  pounds  gain  in  live  weight  steadily  increased  from 
293  for  a  pig  weighing  from  15  to  50  pounds,  up  to  535  pounds 
for  one  weighing  from  300  to  350  pounds.  It  is  important, 
however,  to  note  that,  as  the  pig  gained  in  weight,  there  was 
a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  food  eaten  daily  for  each  100 
pounds  of  live  weight.  The  average  daily  gain  in  live  weight 
increased  up  to  300  pounds,  after  which  it  fell  off  slightly. 

The  influence  of  breed  in  pork  production,  so  far  as  the 
relationship  of  food  consumed  to  gains  in  weight  is  con- 
cerned, is  problematical.  In  experiments  reported  upon  by 
Prof.  G.  E.  Day,  of  Canada,  f  in  which  five  tests  were  con- 
ducted upon  six  breeds  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College, 
and  in  three  tests  at  the  Iowa  station,  no  very  satisfactory 
results  were  secured.  "Why,  for  instance,"  writes  Prof. 
Day,  "do  Berkshires,  Yorkshires,  Duroc-Jerseys  and  Poland- 
Chinas  range  all  the  way  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the 
list  in  the  different  tests;  and  why  would  an  average  of  the 
Ontario  tests  give  a  rating  of  the  breeds  which  is  entirely 
different  from  an  average  of  the  Iowa  tests? "  In  the  opinion 
of  many  practical  swine  breeders,  some  breeds  produce  pork 
more  economically  than  others,  but  we  have  very  insufficient 
evidence  to  prove  that  one  breed  is  better  than  another. 

Mineral  food  for  swine  is  of  first  importance.  When 
we  realize  that  an  animal  can  not  live  without  iron  in  its 
blood,  and  that  over  90  per  cent  of  the  bony  system  con- 
sists of  calcium  and  phosphorus,  we  must  appreciate  the 
importance  of  these  substances  in  the  food.  For  many 
years  swine  growers  in  the  corn  belt  have  been  accustomed 
to  placing  ashes  or  soft  coal  in  the  pig  lots.  This  was  eaten 

*Feeds  and  Feeding,  1917. 
fProductive  Swine  Husbandry,  1915. 


422  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

by  the  pigs,  but  why,  the  farmer  did  not  know.  Prof.  Henry, 
of  Wisconsin,  early  in  experimental  swine  feeding  demon- 
strated that  the  bones  of  hogs  that  had  been  fed  corn  alone 
were  deficient  in  ash,  and  broke  much  more  easily  than  those 
of  hogs  fed  corn  and  mineral  matter.  Since  then  other 
experiments  have  clearly  demonstrated  that  minerals  are  an 
actual  necessity  in  the  diet  of  swine  as  well  as  of  other  farm 
animals.  If  hogs  are  fed  on  clover  or  alfalfa,  with  corn, 
they  will  obtain  in  the  legumes  considerable  mineral  matter, 
but  where  concentrates  are  largely  relied  upon  for  feeding, 


Figure   197. — Hogs  on  alfalfa  pasture,  Oregon  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.     Photograph  by  the  author. 

especially  corn,  minerals  in  some  form  are  a  necessity.  A 
mixture  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  ground  limestone,  fine 
bone  meal,  and  salt  will  make  a  satisfactory  mineral  for 
swine.  Various  kinds  of  mixtures  are  used  by  different 
feeders,  many  of  whom  also  use  flowers  of  sulphur,  copperas 
and  salt,  for  medicinal  purposes,  in  addition  to  the  other 
minerals  used.  For  brood  sows  Prof.  W.  W.  Smith  recom- 
mends* a  combination  of  12  parts  charcoal,  3  parts  air- 
slacked  lime,  ground  bone  or  ground  rock  phosphate,  and  1 
part  common  salt.  Wood  ashes  in  the  same  quantity  as 

*Pork  Production,  1920. 


FEEDING  SWINE  423 

the  lime  he  thinks  would  improve  the  combination.     But 
very  little  salt  seems  to  be  needed  by  swine. 

Water  for  swine  seems  to  have  an  unusual  place  in  the 
animal  economy;  for,  besides  its  customary  use  as  a  drink, 
it  is  used  extensively  to  prepare  slop  foods,  and  is  also  highly 
esteemed  by  the  hog  for  bathing  purposes.  In  cold  weather 
hogs  do  not  drink  so  heavily,  excepting  through  slop  feed, 
but  in  warm  weather  they  need  more  water.  Commenting 
on  the  fact  that  a  new  born  pig's  body  consists  of  80  per  cent 
water,  while  that  of  a  fat  hog  weighing  400  pounds  con- 
tains 35  per  cent,  Prof.  Evvard  says.* 

"The  main  point  is  that  all  pigs  require  a  lot  of  water  regardless  of 
their  own  water  content  and  we  should  aim  to  give  it  to  them  liberally. 
We  should  allow  more  water  in  summer  than  in  winter,  because  of  the 
higher  temperature.  Some  of  our  sows  in  January  drank  around  four 
pounds  of  water  per  head  daily,  whereas  in  April  they  daily  drank  24 
pounds.  The  water  consumption  per  pound  of  dry  matter  ranged  from 
1.3  pound  in  cold  winter  up  to  7.6  pounds  in  warm  springtime." 

Pigs  greatly  relish  a  bath  in  warm  weather,  and  will 
throw  themselves  down  in  any  wet  place,  and  wallow.  They 
do  not  cool  off  as  freely  as  other  animals  by  the  radiation 
of  moisture  from  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  so  obtain  relief  in 
a  wallow.  Some  of  the  more  progressive  swine  growers  sup- 
ply drinking  water  to  the  stock  through  fountains  attached 
to  barrels  holding  water,  and  also  provide  shallow  con- 
crete-lined bathing  pools. 

The  feeding  of  the  brood  sow  prior  to  farrowing  calls  for 
a  ration  fairly  rich  in  protein.  For  fall  farrowing,  a  legume 
pasture,  or  rape  forage,  and  corn  make  an  excellent  diet. 
If  for  spring  farrowing,  then  during  the  winter  it  is  advisable 
to  feed  a  little  leafy  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  and  a  mixture  of 
10  parts  corn,  5  parts  middlings  and  1  part  tankage  or  meat 
meal.  Prof.  Smith  states  f  that  a  mature  sow  in  breeding 
condition  can  be  maintained,  as  a  rule,  by  a  little  less  than 
one  and  one  fourth  pounds  of  average  grain  daily  for  each  100 
pounds  of  live,  weight.  The  brood  sow  should  be  brought  to 

*Pamphlet  published  in  1921  by  Hampshire  Swine  Association. 
fPork  Production,  1920. 


424 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


farrowing  in  good  condition,  but  not  fat.  About  three 
weeks  before  farrowing  the  sow  should  have  her  ration 
changed  to  a  combination  of  5  parts  each  by  weight  of  bran 
and  middlings,  and  1  part  each  of  linseed  meal  and  tankage 
or  meat  meal.  She  should  also  receive  some  skimmed  milk 
in  her  ration,  if  available.  After  farrowing,  this  ration  may 
be  continued  for  a  few  days,  until  the  pigs  and  the  mother 
get  strong  on  their  feet,  when  the  ration  may  be  changed 
again  to  allow  the  use  of  part  corn.  If  one  is  not  able  to 
make  up  this  ration,  one  should  endeavor  to  give  as  nearly 


Figure  198. — Interior  of  model  Iowa  piggery,  containing  sanitary  pens,  wallow 
and  dipping  tank.     Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall. 

a   balanced    ration    as    possible,    not  relying    too     much 
on  corn,  but  using  in  part  some  form  of  protein  food. 

The  feeding  of  suckling  pigs  is  at  first  largely  of  the 
mother's  milk.  When  about  2  weeks  old  the  young  ones,  if 
given  a  chance,  will  begin  to  drink  some  slop  along  with  the 
mother.  Then  a  creep  should  be  provided  for  them,  and 
a  small  trough  arranged,  in  which  is  placed  a  thin  slop  of 
milk,  wheat  middlings,  and  oatmeal  or  sieved  ground  oats. 
As  the  pigs  get  older  they  may  be  fed  lightly  of  shelled  corn 
scattered  around,  preferably  soaked  for  very  young  pigs. 


FEEDING  SWINE  425 

It  is  important  that  these  pigs  be  kept  growing,  and  have 
plenty  of  exercise.  They  may  be  weaned  at  10  to  12  weeks 
of  age,  under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  feeding  of  young  breeding  pigs  after  nursing  is  over 
is  largely  a  proposition  of  making  a  good  growth  and  strong 
muscular  body.  For  stock  of  this  kind  it  is  desirable  to 
feed  in  summer  on  pasture  of  legumes  or  rape,  with  1  to  2 
pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight.  In  winter, 
feed  a  small  amount  of  legume  hay  and  a  mixture  similar  to 
that  given  the  brood  sow  some  weeks  prior  to  farrowing. 
Nothing  is  more  valuable  for  young  growing  pigs  than  skim 
milk,  which  should  be  supplied.  Where  corn  is  the  main 
concentrate  available  for  feeding,  meat  meal  or  tankage 
should  by  all  means  be  purchased,  as  it  does  much  to  balance 
the  ration  and  also  adds  to  the  palatability. 

In  feeding  the  boar  one  should  keep  in  mind  that  he 
must  never  be  fat,  but  be  muscular,  vigorous  and  healthy. 
Some  green  food  is  desirable  in  summer,  but  not  too  much. 
If  legume  or  rape  forage  is  available,  then  a  light  feed  of 
corn  may  be  given,  although  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
corn  and  middlings  would  be  better,  with  5  per  cent  tankage 
added.  The  boar  should  have  plenty  of  exercise  in  a  well- 
fenced  lot  in  which  shade  and  housing  is  provided,  and 
he  should  eat  his  food  with  keen  appetite. 

The  fattening  of  pigs  in  the  corn  belt  is  usually  based 
on  a  generous  use  of  corn,  along  with  pasture  of  some  kind 
in  summer  and  fall.  Pigs  on  legumes,  with  corn  for  con- 
centrates, have  essentially  a  balanced  ration,  and  thrive 
thereon.  Pigs  fattened  in  the  diy  lot  may  be  fed  such  con- 
centrates as  are  available,  according  to  the  section  of 
country.  A  large  per  cent  of  the  hogs  reaching  the  Chicago 
market  are  fed  on  corn  and  tankage,  a  combination  of  10 
parts  of  the  former  and  1  of  the  latter  being  very  satisfactory. 
Skim  milk  is  invaluable  in  fattening,  and  supplies  much 
needed  protein  and  ash  with  such  a  mineral-deficient  carbo- 


426 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


SKIM  MILK  BEST  FOR  HOGS 


I  ACRE 

•  COPW 
MAKE  100  L8  GAIN     +    FATTENS 


hydrate  as  corn.     Wheat  middlings  is  a  popular  concentrate 
used  in  fattening  hogs,  but  Prof.  Evvard  states*  that  in  the 

tests  at  the  Iowa  sta- 
tion they  have  found 
that  it  takes  about  150 
pounds  of  wheat  mid- 
dlings and  tankage, 
when  fed  on  good  past- 
ure, to  produce  the 
same  amount  of  gain  as 
100  pounds  of  shelled 
corn  and  tankage.  One 
of  the  difficulties  with 
the  wheat  middlings, 
especially  if  of  a  low 

Figure    199. — Chart    showing    result    of    hog  rrrnrlp       i«     fVifit      it      rlnp« 

feeding    trials    at    the    Purdue    University^  grade,     IS     tnat     It     < 

Experiment    Station,     showing  advantage  not    prmtnin    pnrvncrh    npf 
from  feeding  skimmilk  to  fattening  hogs. 

Reproduced  from  "The  Cow  the  Mother  of  pnprtrvr  nnit«  for  pnfVi  rvnp 

Prosperity,"   International   Harvester   Co.  ergy  UmtS  I 

hundred    pounds.      The 
adaptability  of  the   hog   to    consuming    a    wide    range  of 


CORN  & 

[SKIM  MILK 


Figure  200. — Two  lots  of  hogs  fed  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station.  The 
two  at  the  left  were  fed  corn  alone  in  dry  lot,  those  at  the  right  corn  and 
tankage.  Photograph  from  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

food  stuffs  makes    the    subject  of    fattening   a  relatively 
simple  matter.     Over  much  of  the  United  States  corn  is 

*Hampshire  Swine  Association  pamphlet,  1921. 


FEEDING  SWINE 


427 


the  chief  concentrate  used,  but  in  the  Northwest,  on  the 
Pacific  slope,  in  Canada,  and  Europe  barley  is  com- 
monly used,  and  is  regarded  as  making  the  best  grade 
of  pork.  In  the  West  and  Southwest  Kafir  corn  is  a 
satisfactory  substitute  for  corn,  while  in  much  of  the  South 
peanuts  are  becoming  an  important  factor  in  fattening  hogs. 
Peanuts,  however,  produce  a  soft  pork,  and  so  must  be  fed 
with  care.  Cottonseed  meal  has  been  fed  to  some  extent; 
but,  as  it  contains  an  ingredient  poisonous  to  hogs,  it  is  unsafe 
as  a  hog  feed,  excepting  in  very  small  amounts  for  periods  not 


Figure  201. — The  self-feeder  for  hogs.     Photograph  from  The  Farmer. 

exceeding  40  days.  Meat  meal,  or  tankage,  on  account  of 
its  high  per  cent  of  protein  and  its  freedom  from  carbohy- 
drates, makes  an  invaluable  material  for  using  with  corn, 
barley,  rice,  and  millstuffs  of  similar  composition. 

The  self-feeder  for  swine  has  come  into  great  popularity 
in  recent  years.  This  is  a  b.ox-like  arrangement,  with  the 
back  vertical,  and  the  front  at  a  slant  after  the  style  of  a 
letter  V.  The  food  is  placed  in  the  wide  top,  and  gradually 
sifts  out  at  the  bottom  point  into  a  feed  trough.  Self- 
feeders  contain  two  or  more  compartments,  a  different 


428  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

kind  of  food  being  placed  in  each  one.  The  pig  goes  to  the 
self-feeder  and  eats  to  suit  himself.  This  has  been  called  the 
''cafeteria"  or  "free  choice"  system  of  feeding.  Experiments 
at  a  number  of  our  stations  have  shown  that  pigs  fattened 
by  this  method  gained  more  rapidly  than  those  hand-fed, 
and  essentially  balanced  their  rations  themselves.  The 
labor  bill  with  pigs  thus  fed  is  greatly  reduced,  and  there  is 
less  waste  of  feed  than  there  is  where  corn  is  scattered  over 
the  ground.  In  experiments  conducted  by  Prof.  Evvard  at 
the  Iowa  station,  in  comparison  with  hand-fed  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  the  free-choice-fed  pigs  had  the  advantage 
in  gains  in  weight  and  cost  of  production.  In  experiments 
conducted  by  Prof.  L.  A.  Weaver  at  the  Missouri  station,* 
pigs  fattened  with  the  self-feeder  gained  more  rapidly  than 
those  which  had  been  hand-fed,  but  with  no  difference  in 
economy  of  gain. 

"It  is  apparent,"  writes  Prof.  Weaver,  "that  the  advantage  which 
the  self-feeder  method  will  have  in  any  specific  instance  over  hand- 
feeding,  in  regard  to  rate  of  gain,  will  depend  to  a  large  degree  upon  the 
ability  of  the  person  doing  the  hand-feeding  to  feed  so  that  the  hogs  will 
consume  a  maximum  amount  of  feed.  In  practically  all  cases,  when 
the  self-fed  hogs  gained  more  rapidly  than  those  which  are  hand-fed, 
they  also  consumed  more  feed." 

The  self-feeder  is  not  generally  suited  to  breeding  stock, 
where  it  is  necessary  to  assume  control  over  the  amount 
of  food  eaten  in  order  to  prevent  fattening.  Prof.  W.  W. 
Smith,  however,  regards  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  during 
the  winter,  for  pregnant  sows  and  gilts,  as  a  safe  method,  f 
He  recommends  to  feed  in  it  a  good  quality  of  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  cut  fine  or  ground  and  mixed  with  corn,  and 
the  proportion  of  hay  so  regulated  that  the  consumption 
of  corn  will  not  exceed  the  amount  necessary  to  maintain 
the  proper  condition  and  weight.  "However,"  he  says, 
"great  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  consumption  of  corn 
is  not  excessive.  In  the  hands  of  a  careless  feeder,  the  in- 
discriminate use  of  the  self-feeder  would  prove  disastrous." 

*Self-Feeders  for  Fattening  Swine.     Bulletin  144  Mo.  Ag.  Exp.  Station,  1917. 
fPork  Production,  1920. 


FEEDING  SWINE  429 

IN  PRODUCTIVE  PORK  PRODUCTION  TAKE  NOTE 

1.  Where  the  industry  centers. 

2.  Of  the  relative  needs  of  protein  and  digestible  nutrients  in  gains 

in  weight  with  fattening  pigs. 

3.  As  to  how  food  should  be  prepared. 

4.  Of  the  amount  of  food  required  for  100  pounds  gain  at  different 

ages. 

5.  If  the  Duroc- Jersey  will  feed  more  profitably  than  the  Poland 

China. 

6.  What  part  mineral  matter  plays  in  growth  and  development. 

7.  How  the  nursing  sow  should  be  fed. 

8.  When  a  pig  creep  should  be  used. 

9.  Of  the  part  .corn  plays  in  fattening  market  swine. 

10.  Of  results  from  using  the  self-feeder. 

STUDIES  FOR  MEMBERS  OF  PIG  CLUBS 

11.  How  do  each  of  ten  farmers  prepare  their  concentrates  for  their 

sows  and  pigs? 

12.  To  what  weight  do  your  neighbors  feed  their  pigs  for  market? 

13.  Make  up  a  statement  of  mineral  foods  fed  by  different  farmers. 

14.  Note  the  provisions  for  watering  swine  on  several  farms. 

15.  At  what  age  are  pigs  weaned  in  your  community? 

16.  Give  five  rations  in  use  for  fattening  swine  for  market. 

17.  Make  a  self-feeder  and  report  on  its  construction  and  cost. 

18.  Ascertain  if  self-feeders  are  in  use  about  home,  and  with  what 

success. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
THE  CARE  OF  SWINE 

The  care  of  the  sow  and  pigs  at  farrowing  requires  watch- 
ful attention.  The  sides  of  the  pen  in  which  the  sow  farrows 
should  be  provided  with  guards  to  prevent  the  mother  from 
lying  on  her  pigs.  This  guard  may  consist  of  a  plank  or  a 
2x4  piece  fastened  about  6  inches  above  the  floor,  and  8  or 
10  inches  out  from  the  side  of  the  pen.  But  very  little  bed- 
ding should  be  placed  in  the  farrowing  pen;  for,  if  it  is  too 
thick,  the  small,  more  or  less  weak  newly  born  pigs  may  get 
tangled  in  it,  and  have  difficulty  in  getting  about  their  mother. 
The  dam  should  not  be  disturbed  while  farrowing,  and  the 
pen  should  be  as  quiet  and  comfortable  as  possible,  and 
protected  from  cold  drafts  and  dampness.  Some  careful 
herdsmen  remove  the  pigs  from  the  dam  as  fast  as  farrowed, 
and  place  them  in  barrels  or  baskets  partly  filled  with  straw. 
In  cold  weather  a  jug  of  warm  water  buried  in  the  straw  will 
keep  the  little  pigs  at  a  comfortable  temperature.  The 
young  pigs  should  be  allowed  to  nurse  the  mother  every  2  or 
3  hours  the  first  day,  and  then  after  24  hours  be  left  with 
her  for  good.  If,  however,  she  is  nervous  and  irritable,  it 
may  be  well  to  keep  the  pigs  from  her  2  or  3  days,  allowing 
them  to  nurse  at  intervals. 

The  separation  of  pigs  into  different  groups,  according  to 
sex,  age,  and  condition,  is  important,  if  one  is  to  care  for  them 
properly.  When  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  gilts  should  be 
separated  from  the  boar  pigs,  and  each  group  fed  and  cared  for 
separately.  The  older  gilts  should  receive  attention  pre- 
paratory for  sale  or  placing  in  the  breeding  herd,  while  the 
mature  sows  naturally  must  be  fed  and  cared  for  by  them- 
selves. The  service  boar  requires  a  strong  pen  or  paddock, 

430 


THE  CARE  OF  SWINE  431 

where  he  may  be  kept  under  restraint  and  properly  fed. 
Hogs  being  fattened  for  the  market  naturally  receive  different 
feed  from  the  breeding  stock,  and  so  must  be  kept  by  them- 
selves. On  many  farms  the  careful  separation  of  the  animals 
into  groups  as  indicated  may  not  be  possible  in  all  details, 
but  the  more  carefully  this  separation  is  observed,  the  more 
success  will  attend  the  herd  development. 

The  sanitation  of  the  swine  quarters  is  of  first  importance. 
The  pens  should  be  kept  free  from  filth  and  an  unnecessary 
amount  of  manure,  and  the  floors  should  be  kept  reasonably 
dry.  One  may  keep  swine  in  almost  any  kind  of  building, 
but  a  dry  floor  and  clean  conditions  are  equally  important 
whatever  the  kind  of  house  occupied.  The  drainage  about 
the  swine  quarters  should  be  away  from  the  buildings  and 
yards,  to  promote  sanitation.  Unfortunately  there  are  too 
many  farms  where  the  hogs  are  obliged  to  live  and  wallow  in 
mud  and  manure,  where  disease  germs  abound.  Sanitary 
conditions  in  the  swine  building  may  be  improved  by  the 
free  use  of  slacked  lime  sprinkled  on  the  floors  of  the  pens, 
and  by  freely  whitewashing  the  walls. 

The  bedding  of  swine  is  customary  in  the  northern  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  especially  in  winter.  The  house  or 
shelter  should  itself  be  comfortable,  so  that  too  much  bed- 
ding will  not  be  used.  Wheat  straw  makes  the  best  bedding; 
but,  if  so  much  is  used  that  the  pigs  bury  themselves  in  it  in 
cold  weather,  when  they  come  out  to  be  fed,  they  are  liable 
to  catch  cold  due  to  sudden  change  of  temperature.  Only 
a  moderate  amount  of  straw,  therefore,  should  be  used.  In 
the  South  very  little  bedding  is  needed  in  winter,  while  in 
the  warm  season  no  bedding  is  required  in  the  North. 

Exercise  for  swine  is  regarded  as  a  necessity.  The  tend- 
ency in  cold  weather  is  for  the  pigs  to  huddle  close  together 
under  the  straw  and  move  about  in  the  air  as  little  as  possible. 
In  the  latter  stages  of  fattening,  exercise  is  not  so  important, 
but  with  the  breeding  herd  it  is  quite  different.  If  the  sows 


432  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

are  to  have  strong,  vigorous  pigs,  they  must  have  enough 
exercise  to  keep  them  healthy  and  strong.  Many  boars  are 
useless,  because  from  lack  of  exercise  they  take  on  too  much 
flesh  and  become  inactive.  On  this  subject  Prof.  W.  W. 
Smith  well  says,* 

"Exercise  promotes  a  loose,  open  condition  of  the  bowels  and  does 
much  to  maintain  a  healthful  functioning  of  the  other  organs  of  elimina- 
tion, exercise  contributes  strength  and  vitality,  reduces  the  chances  of 
disease,  costs  nothing,  and  is  an  indispensable  factor  in  the  maintenance 
of  health  and  breeding  thrift." 

In  winter  it  is  a  good  plan  to  drive  the  pigs  about  in  the 
lots  or  near-by  yards,  scattering  some  corn  and  causing 
them  to  move  about  in  search  of  it.  When  snow  is  on  the 
ground,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  do  so ;  but,  if  the  pigs  live  in 
colony  houses  and  come  to  central  feeding  troughs,  they  will 
be  compelled  to  move  about  more  than  they  would  other- 
wise and  so  will  secure  some  exercise. 

The  care  of  pigs  in  hot  weather  has  much  to  do  with  their 
successful  development.  They  should  be  provided  with 
shade,  if  possible.  A  woods-pasture  is  invaluable  as  a  shelter 
from  the  hot  sun.  Portable  pens  or  cots,  that  have  a  free 
circulation  of  air  across  the  floor  through  openings  on  oppo- 
site sides,  will  furnish  shade  and  may  be  fairly  comfortable. 
A  flat-roofed,  low,  open-sided  shed  in  the  pig  lot,  that  costs 
but  little  for  labor  and  material,  will  also  furnish  shade. 

A  wallow  in  warm  weather  gives  the  hog  supreme  satis- 
faction. The  unsanitary  character  of  mud  wallows  is  to  be 
strictly  condemned,  but  the  use  of  the  modern  concrete 
wallow,  in  which  water  may  be  kept  reasonably  free  of  filth, 
is  to  be  highly  commended. 

Parasites  affecting  swine  are  both  internal  and  external. 
Hogs  are  very  often  infested  with  round  worms  which  may 
be  as  large  as  a  common  lead  pencil,  and  are  a  serious  drain 
on  their  vitality.  The  eggs  and  embryo  forms  of  the  para- 
sites are  found  in  muddy,  filthy  yards  and  lots.  If  one  is  to 
have  healthy  quarters,  it  will  be  very  important  to  keep 

*Pork  Production,  1921. 


THE  CARE  OF  SWINE 


433 


the  yards  really  sanitary,  and  rotate  the  •  use  of  feed  lots 
and  pastures,  so  that  they  may  not  become  infested. 
If  hogs  feed  on  land  that  has  been  continuously  used  for  this 
purpose,  parasites  are  sure  to  prevail.  One  may  treat  hogs 
infested  with  worms  as  follows,  with  very  satisfactory  results. 
From  3  to  5  grains  of  santonin  and  from  5  to  8  grains  of 
calomel,  are  used  for  each  100  pounds  live  weight  of  pig. 
The  hogs  should  receive  no  feed  for  10  or  12  hours,  after 
which  they  are  turned  to  the  feed  trough  in  which  there  is 


Figure  202. —  A  woods-pasture  and  feed  yard  for  pigs.     Photograph  by  the 

author. 

slightly  moistened  ground  feed,  over  which  the  necessary 
amount  of  powder  has  been  sprinkled.  The  hogs  should 
then  be  kept  from  other  feed  for  10  hours  or  so,  in  order  to 
give  the  medicine  time  to  do  efficient  work. 

External  parasites,  such  as  body  lice,  often  become  very 
abundant.  These  are  easily  destroyed  by  giving  the  skin  a 
brushing  of  crude  petroleum.  If  many  hogs  need  treatment, 
they  should  be  driven  through  a  dipping  vat,  in  which  water 
has  been  filled  nearly  to  the  desired  height,  on  the  surface 
of  which  should  be  placed  about  an  inch  of  the  crude  oil. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  spray  the  interior  of  the  hog  plant  occa- 


434 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


sionally  with  crude  oil  and  especially  the  sleeping  quarters. 
Hog  cholera  is  one  of  the  most  common  diseases  of  swine. 
It  is  caused  by  a  very  minute  germ.  The  symptoms  of  the 
disease  are  general  sickness,  inflammation  and  ulceration  of 
stomach  and  intestines,  enlargements  of  the  glands,  weak- 
ness of  the  legs,  causing  staggering,  stiffness,  etc.  Pigs  may 
be  sick  for  several  weeks  or  months  before  they  die.  A 
large  amount  of 
research  work 
has  been  given 
this  disease,  and 
swine  plague, 
which  is  much 
the  same,  but 
without  satisfac- 
tory results.  In 
recent  years  it 
has  been  satis- 
factorily demon- 
strated that  pigs 
may  be  made 
immune  from 
cholera  by  in- 
jecting into 
healthy  animals 

a  serum  prepared  from  the  blood  of  swine.  There  are  two 
methods  of  vaccinating,  one,  the  "single  method,"  in  which 
serum  alone  is  injected  into  young  pigs,  which 
makes  them  immune  for  3  months  or  so.  In  the 
other,  the  "simultaneous  method,"  the  serum  is  intro- 
duced and,  at  the  same  time  in  another  place,  a  small  amount 
of  blood  that  has  been  taken  from  a  hog  sick  with  cholera. 
This  serum  is  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  inner  thigh  of  a 
pig,  or  behind  the  ear  of  a  large  hog.  A  large  percentage 
of  the  herds  of  swine  given  treatment  to  prevent  cholera 


Figure  203. — Injecting  serum  into  thigh  of  pig  to  prevent 
cholera.  Photograph  from  Dr.  Edgerton,  Ohio  State 
Veterinarian. 


THE  CARE  OF  SWINE  435 

are  made  immune.  As  cholera  is  highly  contagious,  great 
care  should  be  used  to  prevent  any  exposure  of  healthy  pigs. 
It  is  even  unsafe  for  a  person  working  with  healthy  pigs  to 
visit  a  diseased  herd,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  conveying 
the  disease  by  means  of  his  shoes.  Every  farm  on  which 
cholera  prevails  should  have  a  sign  at  the  entrance  to  the 
farm,  stating  that  cholera  is  in  the  herd. 

Tuberculosis  among  swine  is  common,  especially  in  herds 
fed  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  that  has  not  been  pasteurized. 
This  disease  is  most  common,  therefore,  among  pigs  fed  in 
dairy  districts.  When  fed  in  connection  with  healthy  cattle, 
pastured  on  forage  crops,  and  given  concentrates,  tuber- 
culosis is  not  a  common  disease  among  swine.  The  best 
method  of  preventing  it  is  to  feed  no  milk  excepting  with  the 
certainty  that  it  comes  from  a  healthy  source  and  to  keep  a 
herd  of  cattle  known  to  be  free  from  this  disease.  Pigs 
valued  at  millions  of  dollars  are  condemned  at  packing  houses 
each  year  on  account  of  having  tuberculosis.  The  affected 
pig  can  not  be  cured. 

Removing  the  tusks  of  the  boar  often  becomes  a  neces- 
sity. A  mature  boar,  with  long  sharp  tusks,  is  a  source  of 
danger,  as  a  person  may  be  seriously  injured  by  them.  They 
are,  therefore,  usually  removed  in  well  managed  herds.  The 
following  method  is  recommended  by  Prof.  G.  E.  Day:* 

"The  boar  is  first  made  fast  to  a  post  by  means  of  a  rope  noosed 
about  his  upper  jaw  back  of  the  upper  tusks.  Then  one  man  takes  a 
crowbar  and  another  a  sharp  chisel  and  a  hammer.  The  sharp  edge  of 
the  crowbar  is  placed  against  the  tusk  near  its  base,  and  held  firmly  in 
position,  and  the  edge  of  the  cold  chisel  is  placed  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  tusk  directly  across  from,  and  even  with,  the  edge  of  the  crowbar. 
A  sharp  blow  with  the  hammer  on  the  cold  chisel  does  the  job." 

Marking  the  litters  of  pigs  is  very  necessary  in  pure-bred 
herds.  The  young  pigs  may  be  given  ear  tags,  when  3  or  4 
weeks  old,  as  indicated  on  page  54,  but  these  tags  often  get 
torn  from  the  ears  of  pigs,  and  the  tag  is  then  lost.  Numbers 
may  be  easily  tattooed  in  the  ears  of  pigs  of  the  white  breeds, 
as  is  commonly  done  in  England.  In  the  United  States 

*Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  1915. 


436  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

various  methods  of  notching  the  ear  of  the  pig  at  2  or  3  weeks 
of  age  are  used.  With  a  common  punch,  such  as  is  used  for 
cutting  holes  in  leather,  a  shallow  notch  is  cut  in  the  edge  of 
the  ear  of  the  pig.  The  following  method  is  in  use  at  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  and  its  application  is  thus 
clearly  described  by  Prof.  Day.* 


/O 


Figure  204. — A  method  of  number-  Figure  205.  —  Another  method    of 

ing  pigs  by  ear  marks.  numbering  piga  by  ear  marks. 

"The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  plan  of  numbering  with 
explanation  of  its  use.  For  example  (Figure  204)  all  the  pigs  in  the  first 
litter  would  have  a  nip  taken  out  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear  next  to 
the  head,  which  represents  No.  1,  No.  2  is  indicated  by  taking  a  nip  out 
of  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear  half  way  between  the  base  and  the  tip; 
and  the  pigs  in  the  third  litter  have  a  nip  taken  out  of  the  tip  of  the  left 
ear,  and  so  forth.  Between  5  and  10  two  nicks  are  necessary.  Thus,  6  =  5 
+  1,7  =  5+2,8  =  5+3,9  =  5+4.  For  No.  10  we  go  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
right  ear  next  to  the  head.  Larger  numbers  call  for  various  combinations, 
for  example,  11  =  10+1,  12  =  10+2,  17  =  10+5+2.  etc.  The  nick  should 
not  be  made  deep,  or  it  will  disfigure  the  ear;  just  a  little  deeper  than  the 
thickness  of  the  skin  is  sufficient.  If  the  piece  is  cut  out  cleanly,  the 
mark  will  stay  as  long  as  the_ear  lasts." 

A  private  swine  herd  book  should  be  kept  by  every  breeder 
of  swine.  In  this  he  should  enter  the  name  and  number  of 
each  animal,  the  date  of  farrowing,  name  and  number  of  sire 
and  dam,  from  whom  purchased  and  price,  with  space  for 
recording  name  and  address  of  persons  to  whom  sold.  In 
addition  to  these  facts,  a  diagram  of  head  and  ear  should 
be  shown  against  each  animal  recorded,  with  the  ear  notches 
shown  thereon.  A  card  system  is  especially  favored  by 
swine  breeders,  the  main  facts  as  above  given  being  on  one 
side  of  the  card,  while  the  pedigree  is  given  on  the  reverse 
side.  Space  is  also  available  for  listing  the  litters  of  sows. 

A  feeding  platform  for  swine  is  often  used  among  feeders 

*Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  1915 


THE  CARE  OF  SWINE  437 

in  the  corn  belt,  on  which  the  hogs  may  feed  without  wallow- 
ing in  mud.  Cement  platforms,  on  which  feed  troughs  are 
placed,  are  best,  for  they  furnish  a  substantial  floor,  when 
well  made.  They  are  easily  made  rat-proof,  and  are  free 
of  the  holes  or  cracks  so  likely  to  occur  with  board  floors, 
and  are  kept  clean  with  little  trouble. 

Shelters  and  houses  for  swine  vary  greatly.  There  are 
two  types  in  common  use,  a  centralized  building,  with  a 
series  of  pens,  a  room  for  feed,  etc.,  and  a  colony  or  individual 
house  of  a  single  room.  The  centralized  building  should 


Figure  206. — An  Iowa  piggery,  showing  concrete  foundation  and  outside  feed- 
platform.    Note  the  large 
)tograph  by  E.  J.  Hall. 


ing  platform.    Note  the  large  amount  of  sunlight  provided  through  the  roof. 
Phot 


be  located  where  drainage  is  good,  and  with  feed  lots  and 
pastures  conveniently  connected.  This  house  should  be  well 
lighted,  so  that  sunshine  will  penetrate  easily  to  every  par.t. 
In  an  interesting  report  from  332  farmers  in  Kansas,*  130 
different  dimensions  of  hog  houses  were  reported.  The 
majority  of  the  houses  reported  on  were  from  8  to  20  feet 
wide  and  from  24  to  60  feet  long,  the  average  house  being 
16  by  40  feet,  suitable  for  10  farrowing  sows.  Such  a  house 
would  have  a  central  four-foot  alley,  with  five  6x8  pens  on 
each  side.  The  windows  should  be  placed  so  as  to  secure 
the  greatest  amount  of  sunshine  possible  within  the  house. 
The  floor  may  be  earthen,  wood,  or  cement.  In  316  Kansas 

*Hogs  in  Kansas.     Report  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1919. 


438  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

reports  on  the  kinds  of  floors  used,  150  reported  earth,  5 
earth  packed  over  woven  wire,  2  gravel,  59  wood  or  plank, 
70  cement  or  concrete,  2  boards  over  cement,  8  part  earth 
and  part  cement,  8  part  board  and  part  cement,  6  part  wood 
and  6  stone.  Concrete  is  easily  kept  sanitary  and  rat-proof; 
but,  unless  well  bedded,  is  inclined  to  cause  rheumatism 
and  pneumonia.  Earth  floors  are  cheap  and  are  liked  by 
hogs,  but  are  easily  rooted  up,  and  may  be  very  dusty  or 
unsanitary.  A  movable  wood  floor  over  concrete  is  expensive 
but  ideal  from  a  health  point  of  view.  A  single  colony 


Figure  207. — Hog  cots  and   lots  at  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
Photograph  by  the  author. 

house  should  have  a  strong  frame  work,  a  roof  that  does  not 
leak,  and  sides  that  are  not  drafty  in  cold  weather.  It 
should  be  placed  on  runners  so  that  it  may  be  easily  hauled 
to  a  new  location  whenever  desired.  A  house  5  feet  wide 
and  7  feet  long  is  of  convenient  dimensions.  A  house  with 
a  gable  roof,  or  a  two-thirds-span  roof,  or  one  with  roof  and 
sides  like  the  letter  A,  is  the  more  common.  The  economy 
"A"  house  advocated  by  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  is  very 
popular.  It  combines  low  cost,  simple  construction,  and  is 
easily  adjusted  for  changes  of  temperature.  Its  5'x  7'  floor 
is  sufficient  for  a  good-sized  sow  and  litter. 


THE  CARE  OF  SWINE  4S9 

IN  THE  CARE  OF  SWINE 

1.  How  would  you  protect  the  young  pigs  from  being  lain  on  by 

the  sow? 

2.  What  would  you  do  to  provide  sanitary  quarters? 

3.  Why  limit  the  amount  of  straw  bedding  in  the  pens  in  cold 

weather? 

4.  What  kind  of  a  wallow  should  be  provided? 

5.  How  destroy  external  parasites? 

6.  At  what  age  would  you  give  serum  treatment  to  prevent  cholera? 

7.  What  may  be  done  to  prevent  tuberculosis? 

8.  When  may  the  tattoo  system  of  marking  be  used? 

9.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  concrete  feeding  platform? 

10.  Of  what  should  one  be  mindful  in  erecting  a  centralized  house? 

MAKE  AN  INTERESTING  REPORT  ON  THE  FOLLOWING  POINTS 
IN  THE  CARE  OF  NEIGHBORS'  PIGS 

11.  Are  guard  rails  used  in  farrowing  pens? 

12.  Are  the  pigs  kept  separate  according  to  sex  and  age? 

13.  Is  the  drainage  good  about  the  pens? 

14.  What  winter  protection  is  given? 

15.  Is  treatment  for  parasites  given,  if  so  how? 

16.  What  methods  are  in  use  to  prevent  hog  cholera? 

17.  Do  boar  owners  remove  tusks  from  old  animals,  and  if  so  how? 

18.  How  are  the  pigs  marked  for  future  identification? 

19.  Are  private  herd  books  in  use? 

20.  What  kind  of  houses  are  most  in  use? 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE-STOCK  CLUBS 

For  many  years  an  important  subject  of  discussion  in 
the  agricultural  papers,  and  in  farmers'  institutes  was, 
"How  can  we  keep  our  boys  and  girls  on  the  farm?"  Vari- 
ous answers  were  given  to  the  question,  but  naturally  the 
most  logical  one  was  to  give  them  an  interest  in  the  business. 
The  real  movement  in  this  direction  began  about  1905  in 
the  South,  in  the  organization  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  for 
growing  corn  under  conditions  of  competition.  Dr.  S.  A. 
Knapp  at  this  time  was  engaged  in  promoting  co-operative 
work  among  southern  farmers,  especially  in  the  gulf  states, 
and  he  did  much  to  interest  the  boys  and  girls  in  production. 
This  work  was  championed  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and,  in  his  annual  report  for  1913,  Secre- 
ary  of  Agriculture  Houston  wrote  as  follows. 

"The  present  enrollment  in  this  work  amounts  to  60,000  boys  and 
girls,  who  are  systematically  organized  into  boys'  corn  clubs,  girls' 
canning  clubs,  potato  clubs,  sugar  beet  clubs,  vegetable  garden  clubs, 
etc.  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  all  the  corn-club  members  report- 
ing this  year  was  74.5  bushels,  with  a  net  profit  of  $25.55  per  acre; 
426  made  100  bushels  or  more,  and  1,078  made  over  60  bushels  per 
acre." 

The  origin  of  boys'  and  girls'  live-stock  clubs  may  be 
said  to  date  with  the  year  1910,  when  59  boys  in  Caddo 
Parish,  Louisiana,  organized  a  pig  club,*  with  the  help  of 
Mr.  E.  W.  Jones,  the  superintendent  of  the  rural  schools  of 
the  county.  This  club  was  organized  to  do  its  work  after 
the  manner  of  the  corn  club,  of  which  it  was  an  outgrowth. 
The  college  of  agriculture  of  the  Louisiana  State  University 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  work,  and  promoted  the  organ- 
ization of  other  clubs  in  the  state.  From  this  initial  effort 


*The  boys'  pig  club  work.     W.  F.  Ward,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Report,  1915. 

440 


BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE  STOCK  CLUBS  441 

has  developed  a  remarkable  interest  all  over  the  United 
States  in  organizing  clubs  to  promote  work  with  pigs,  calves, 
sheep,  rabbits,  and  poultry.  In  1917  there  were  10,000 
young  people  in  poultry  clubs  in  eight  states,  and  45,000 
pig-club  members,  while  in  1920  there  were  33,000  members 
of  live-stock  clubs  in  the  northern  and  western  states. 

The  object  of  the  live-stock  club  is  to  promote  an  inter- 
est in  farm  animals  on  the  part  of  the  boys  and  girls  on  the 


Figure  208. — Shorthorn  steer  calf,  Sunbeam  and  Ralph  Peak  of  Illinois,  who 
fed  and  showed  him  at  the  International.     Photograph  by  Hildebrand. 

farm.  Mr.  W.  F.  Ward  gives  nine  objects  in  forming  pig 
clubs.*  The  ninth  one,  although  given  last,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  important. 

"To  instill  in  the  boys  while  young  a  love  of  animals  which  will  re- 
sult in  their  taking  more  interest  in  farm  life,  and  to  furnish  them  at 
the  same  time  some  work  which  will  in  a  practical  way  give  an  insight 
into  the  business  side  of  farm  life  and  incite  in  them  a  desire  to  struggle 
for  and  attain  success." 

There  are  various  other  good  reasons  why  boys  in  partic- 
ular should  interest  themselves  in  these  live-stock  clubs. 


*Boys'  Pig  Clubs,  Farmers'  Bulletin  566,  December  31,  1913. 


442  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  competitive  side  of  the  work  demonstrates  the  value 
of  good  blood  in  farm  animals  and  its  relationship  to  profit- 
able production.  Thus  better  breeding  will  be  stimulated. 
The  cost  of  production  will  teach  the  boy  how  to  use  the 
forage  crops  and  concentrates  of  the  farm  to  best  advantage 
rather  than  purchase  expensive  feeds  on  the  market.  Boys 
through  live-stock  clubs  study  the  breeds  and  compare  them 
with  grades  and  scrubs,  thus  becoming  judges  capable  of 
measuring  up  values.  In  this  same  connection  boys  become 
interested  in  promoting  certain  breeds,  thereby  contributing 
to  live-stock  improvement.  Live-stock  clubs  of  necessity 
place  a  premium  on  proper  management,  involving  breeding, 
feeding  and  sanitation,  each  of  which  is  of  vital  importance 
in  profitable  production.  During  the  late  World  War,  when 
an  appeal  was  made  to  the  American  stockmen  to  produce 
more  meat,  it  was  estimated  that  the  45,000  pig-club  mem- 
bers produced  about  ten  million  pounds  of  dressed  pork. 

The  organization  of  live-stock  clubs  is  comparatively 
simple.  In  1915,  Mr.  W.  H.  Balis,  in  charge  of  Boj^s'  Pig 
Clubs  in  Louisiana,  wrote.* 

"The  organization  of  a  pig  club  consists  simply  in  enrolling  each 
boy  and  girl  of  the  school  who  is  willing  to  raise  a  pig  and  keep  a  record 
of  how  much  the  pig  is  fed,  etc.  Any  teacher  may  do  this  and  send  the 
names  to  the  parish  demonstration  agent,  or  if  there  is  no  parish  agent, 
to  the  Junior  Extension  Department  of  the  Louisiana  State  Univer- 
sity. Before  sending  the  names  to  the  club  agent  it  is  very  important 
that  the  parents  give  their  consent,  as  very  few  will  be  able  to  carry  on 
the  work  unless  the  parents  are  willing  to  co-operate." 

Boys'  and  girls'  live-stock  clubs  are  now  generally  under 
the  supervision  of  the  extension  service  of  our  state  agricul- 
tural colleges,  in  co-operation  with  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  As  a  rule,  county  agricultural  agents 
where  such  persons  hold  office,  organize  the  clubs,  and  see 
that  the  work  is  properly  started  and  supervised.  Where 
there  are  no  county  agents,  the  work  may  be  conducted  by 
local  clubs,  supervised  by  volunteer  leaders.  Teachers  in 
the  rural  schools,  especially  those  teaching  agricultural  sub- 

*Organization  of  Boys'  Pig  Clubs,  Circular  No.  2,  Louisiana  State  University. 


BOYS'  AND   GIRLS'  LIVE  STOCK  CLUBS 


443 


jects,  usually 
take  an  active 
interest  in  pro- 
moting the 
clubs.  It  is  rec- 
ommended that 
a  simple  form  of 
organization  be 
adopted  by  all 
clubs.  It  is 
customary  to 
adopt  a  consti- 
tution and  by-laws,  and  the  following  is  offered  as  a  sugges- 
tion in  organizing  clubs  devoted  to  live-stock  work. 


Figure  209. — Newman   Rosenberry,   a  county  pig  j:lub 
Phot 


champion  watching  his  pets. 
W.  H.  Palmer. 


jtograph  from  Prof. 


A  SUGGESTED  CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS  FOR  A 
BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE-STOCK  CLUB. 

CONSTITUTION 

Article  I.  Name.  The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be  the .... 
Boys'  and  Girls' Club. 

Article  II.  Object.  The  object  of  this  club  shall  be  to  promote 

interest  in  improved  live  stock,  and  more  especially  in , 

to  instruct  its  members  in  selecting,  feeding,  and  caring  for  these 
animals,  and  to  cultivate  a  love  for  farm  animals  and  greater  interest 
in  country  life. 

Article  III.  Membership.  Any  boy  or  girl  between  the"  age  of  10 

and  18  years  who  will  agree  to  secure  at  least  one and 

care  for  it  under  the  instructions  of  the  club  leader,  may  at  any  time 
become  a  member. 

Article  IV.  Officers.  The  officers  shall  be  a  president,  vice  presi- 
dent, secretary  and  treasurer. 

Article  V.  Meetings.  An  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  on 

and  special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  president  at  such  time  and 
place  as  he  deems  necessary. 

Article  VI.  Elections.  The  election  of  officers  shall  be  held  at  the 
regular  annual  meeting,  and  such  election  shall  be  by  ballot. 

Article  VII.  Amendments.  The  constitution  may  be  amended  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  at  the  annual  meeting,  or  at 
any  special  meeting  where  two  weeks'  notice  has  been  given  club  mem- 
bers of  proposed  change  in  the  constitution. 

BY-LAWS 

Section  1.  Duties  and  privileges.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each 
member  to  co-operate  as  far  as  possible  with  fellow  members  in  promot- 


444 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ing  the  special  work  of  the  club,  and  to  solicit  desirable  new  members. 
Each  member  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote  in  the  business  meetings  of 
the  association. 

Section  2.  Officers.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  to  serve  one 
year,  or  until  their  successors  are  elected,  and  shall  perform  such  services 
as  are  ordinarily  required  by  their  positions. 

Section  3.  President.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings 
when  present,  and  serve  as  the  directing  head  of  its  activities. 

Section  4.  Vice-President.  The  vice-president  shall  perform  the 
duties  of  the  president  in  his  absence. 

Section  6.  Secretary.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the 
proceedings  of  each  meeting,  and  report  on  the  same  at  the  following 
meeting.  The  secretary  shall  act  as  correspondent  in  matters  relating 
to  the  business  of  the  club,  and  shall  keep  a  roll  of  the  membership. 

Section  6.  Treasurer.  The  treasurer,  to  whom  dues  shall  be  paid, 
shall  be  the  custodian  of  all  funds  and  shall  make  an  annual  financial 
report,  or  otherwise  at  the  request  of  the  president. 

Section  7.  Order  of  business,  (a)  Secretary's  report  of  previous 
meeting,  (b)  Roll  call,  (c)  Reports  of  committees,  (d)  Unfinished 
business,  (e)  New  business,  (f)  Adjournment  of  business  session, 
(g)  Social  session. 

The  stand- 
ardization of 
club  work  was 

undertaken  by 
the  United 
States  Depart- 
ment of  Agricul- 
ture in  1915.  It 
was  thought  de- 
sirable to  or- 
ganize  club 
members  in 
groups,  to  be 
supervised  by 
local  leaders.  In 
1918  an  agree- 
ment was  made  between  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  several  state  club  leaders,  to  provide 
for  standard  clubs,  and  as  a  result  of  this  conference  the  fol- 
lowing organization  requirements  were  adopted. 


Figure  210. — Edward  Bell,  of  Ohio,  and  his  first  prize  calf 
in  the  calf  club  class,  later  grand  champion  in  open  class 
at  Ohio  State  Fair,  1920.  Photograph  from  Ohio  State 
University. 


BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE  STOCK  CLUBS  445 

1.  Each  club  shall  have  a  membership  of  at  least  five  working  on 
the  same  project. 

2.  There  shall  be  a  local  club  leader  in  charge  during  the  club 
year. 

3.  There  shall  be  a  local  club  organization  with  necessary  officers 
and  duties  prescribed  in  a  club  constitution. 

4.  There  shall  be  a  definite  club  program  of  work  for  the  year. 

5.  There  shall  be  held  at  least  six  regular  club  meetings  during  the 
year.     The  secretary  shall  be  required  to  keep  definite  records  of  these 
meetings  and  also  of  the  progress  of  each  member. 

6.  A  local  exhibit  shall  be  held  annually  by  the  club. 

7.  There  shall  be  a  club  demonstration  team  which  must  give  at 
least  one  public  demonstration  in  the  home  community. 

8.  At  least  60  per  cent  of  the  members  must  complete  the  farm 
or  home  demonstration  and  file  a  final  report  with  the  county  or  state 
club  leader. 

9.  A  judging  team  shall  be  chosen  by  competition  between  the 
members. 

10.  An  achievement  day  program  shall  be  held  at  the  completion 
of  the  work. 

11.  The  club  shall  hold  a  membership  in  the  farm  bureau  or  other 
county  extension  organization. 

When  the  first  four  requirements  have  been  met,  a  stand- 
ard club  charter  is  issued.  When  all  the  requirements  have 
been  met  for  any  one  year,  a  seal  of  achievement  is  awarded. 

A  county  club  committee  organized  to  promote  the  organ- 
ization and  welfare  of  the  clubs  is  desirable.  Such  a  com- 
mittee should  consist  of  one  person  from  each  community 
or  township  of  a  county,  and  should  be  made  up  where  pos- 
sible of  men  and  women  representing  organizations  interested 
in  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  county.  This  general  committee 
will,  in  co-operation  with  the  county  leader,  select  persons  to 
serve  as  local  community  committees.  This  latter  body 
need  not  have  over  five  members,  preferably  representing 
various  community  clubs.  It  will  be  well  also  to  have  on 
this  committee  one  each  of  the  older  boys  and  girls,  especially 
if  they  have  previously  been  club  members.  The  commu- 
nity committee  will  decide  upon  the  projects  for  the  com- 
munity, and  should  meet  in  conference  with  the  county 
leader  or  other  person  in  charge,  to  plan  the  work. 

The  activities  of  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  are  developed  in 
several  directions.  What  probably  appeals  to  young  people 


446  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

most  is  the  demonstration  work,  as  seen  in  feeding  and  car- 
ing for  animals,  the  exhibits  of  live  stock,  and  the  judging 
contests.  Social  events  are  also  of  importance,  and  an  an- 
nual picnic  is  popular.  Demonstrations  of  feeding  live  stock 
and  competitive  exhibits  of  animals  are  now  commonly  made 
by  club  members  all  over  the  United  States.  These  exhibits, 
especially  of  cattle,  pigs,  and  chickens,  have  become  large 
and  important  parts  of  the  live-stock  shows  at  some  of  our 
local  and  state  fairs.  At  the  1921  Iowa  State  Fair  416  pigs 
were  shown  by  members  of  such  clubs.  Judging  contests 
are  very  attractive  to  the  boys  and  girls.  In  local  commun- 
ity clubs  contests  are  held  to  determine  who  the  best  three 
or  four  live-stock  judges  are,  and  these  are  appointed  to 
participate  in  county  club  contests.  The  best  team  of  three 
represents  the  county  in  a  state-wide  county  contest  at  the 
college  of  agriculture.  Demonstrations  by  club  members  at 
fairs  are  becoming  popular,  and  are  both  interesting  and  in- 
structive. Such  a  demonstration  may  show  the  effects  of 
certain  feeds  in  producing  meat  or  growth.  One  club  at  the 
1921  fair  at  Sioux  City  gave  a  fine  demonstration  of  the  com- 
position of  a  fleece  of  wool  in  scoured  fiber,  grease,  and  dirt, 
and  showed  how  the  fleece  should  be  tied  for  market. 

Prizes  for  competition  of  club  members  or  teams  have 
greatly  stimulated  interest  among  the  boys  and  girls.  These 
prizes  are  widely  different  in  character  and  value.  As  a 
general  policy  it  is  not  desirable  to  offer  cash  prizes,  unless 
the  money  is  to  be  used  for  some  specific  educational  pur- 
pose. Educational  trips,  such  as  visiting  stock  farms  under 
proper  supervision,  and  scholarships  in  agricultural  schools 
or  colleges,  are  most  commendable.  A  local  tour  in  the  com- 
munity in  which  a  club  is  centered,  inspecting  the  stock  on 
farms  or  the  animals  in  charge  of  club  members,  is  usually 
very  attractive  to  all  concerned.  In  1921,  a  team  of  Texas 
club  boys  who  had  won  the  highest  honors  in  the  South 
judging  live  stock  made  a  trip  to  Europe  to  visit  stock  farms, 


BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE-STOCK  CLUBS 


447 


the  prize  in  this  case  being  their  expenses  on  that  trip.  A 
prize  greatly  valued  by  large  numbers  of  club  members  has 
been  the  payment  of  all  necessary  expenses  of  a  trip  to  the 
state  fair  or  to  the  college  of  agriculture.  Each  year  at  the 
Ohio  State  University  the  club  boys  and  girls  have  contests 
in  judging  covering  several  days,  at  the  end  of  which  period 
the  five  scoring  the  highest  number  of  points  have  been 
awarded  special  medals.  Silver  cups  and  banners  are  also 
desirable  prizes,  especially  for  competition  between  clubs. 

The  benefits  derived  from  the  work  of  club  members  is 
far   greater   than    might    be    thought    possible.     Certainly 


Figure  211. — The  Henry  County,  Ohio,  Pig  Club.     Photograph  from  Exten- 
sion Service,  Ohio  State  University. 

through  these  organizations  has  come  a  greatly  increased 
interest  in  farm  life,  and  this  has  resulted  in  the  keeping  of 
better  live  stock  on  many  farms.  As  never  before  in  the 
history  of  America,  young  boys  and  girls  have  become  part- 
ners with  their  parents.  During  1920,  according  to  Messrs. 
C.  B.  Smith  and  G.  E.  Farrell,*  5,000  farmers  were  led  to 
replace  scrub  pigs  with  pure-breds  as  a  result  of  the  pig-club 
work.  Further,  this  same  year  3,000  poultry-club  members 
in  the  northern  and  western  states  introduced  38,000  pure- 
bred fowls  on  their  home  farms,  culled  1,200  flocks,  and 
raised  155,000  chickens.  Thousands  of  pure-bred  animals, 

*Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1920,  p.  489. 


448  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

write  Messrs.  Smith  and  Farrell,  have  been  introduced  as  a 
result  of  the  club  work  with  baby  beeves,  dairy  animals, 
sheep,  and  swine.  Some  33,000  club  members  are  now  en- 
gaged in  such  work  in  the  northern  and  western  states.  Of 
174  entries  by  club  members  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair  in  the 
baby  beef  class,  121  were  sold  at  auction  and  2  by  private 
sale.  The  123  calves  weighed  124,220  pounds  and  sold  at 
an  average  price  of  $18.30  per  hundred  weight.  Iowa  State 
College  purchased  two  of  the  calves  for  $650.  During  the 
year  1918  an  appeal  was  made  to  increase  our  meat  stocks. 
A  special  appeal  was  made  to  urban  boys  and  girls  to  assist 
in  this  work,*  because  of  the  ease  with  which  such  clubs 
could  be  carried  on  under  city  conditions.  As  a  result  of 
this  work,  26,322  rabbits  and  331,072  chicks  were  raised, 
and  club  members  reported  gathering  133,564  dozens  of 
eggs.  The  total  estimated  value  of  the  food  produced  by 
the  37,723  members  of  2,171  clubs  raising  rabbits  and  chick- 
ens was  $402,238,  a  really  remarkable  showing. 

One  fine  feature  of  the  club  work  is  the  development  of 
community  spirit  and  leadership  among  the  boys  and  girls. 
Without  question  they  are  contributing  much  to  the  uplift 
of  rural  life  which  is  now  taking  place.  Club  work  also  pro- 
motes co-operation  in  the  best  sense.  Where  young  people 
thus  co-operate,  older  ones  are  also  influenced  in  the  same 
direction.  This  result  all  comes  through  well  directed,  gen- 
erous leadership.  In  1918  there  were  about  14,000  volunteer 
leaders  who  devoted  themselves  to  promoting  community 
welfare  through  these  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  Another  im- 
portant result  of  club  membership  is  that,  in  assuming  per- 
sonal responsibility  for  things  worth  while,  the  boy  or  the 
girl  obtains  the  reward  that  comes  for  things  well  done. 
To  feed  and  care  for  an  animal,  and  watch  its  growth  and 
development,  is  a  most  beneficial  sort  of  education.  But  if 
one  is  able  to  win  a  prize  at  the  live-stock  show,  as  a  re- 
sult of  this  feed  and  care,  the  reward  is  even  greater 

*Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  Work,  1918.     Circular  66,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr 


BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  LIVE-STOCK  CLUBS  449 

CAN  YOU  ANSWER  THESE  QUESTIONS? 

1.  When  and  where  was  the  first  boys'  live-stock  club  started? 

2.  How  many  members  of  live-stock  clubs  were  there  in  1920  in  the 

northern  and  western  states? 

3.  What  was  Mr.  Ward's  ninth  object  in  forming  pig  clubs? 

4.  How  are  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  organized  and  supervised? 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  a  club? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  standardizing  club  work? 

7.  Of  whom  should  the  membership  of  a  county  club  committee 

consist? 

8.  What  is  the  most  popular  form  of  club  activities? 

9.  What  form  of  prizes  is  most  desirable? 

10.  How  did  club  members  help  furnish  food  during  the  war? 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  CLUB  MEMBERS 

11.  Make   a   community   or   similar   map,    giving   locations  of  club 

members. 

12.  If  more  than  one  club  is  in  your  township  or  county,  ascertain 

which  seems  strongest  in  membership  and  the  reason? 

13.  Ascertain  what  projects  are  being  carried  out  in  clubs  in  your 

vicinity. 

14.  Learn  if  standard  clubs  are  more  efficient  than  any  others. 

15.  Compare  rations  fed    by    different   boys   and   girls   feeding   the 

same  kind  of  live  stock. 

16.  Write  a  report  for  publication  of  what  you  saw  on  a  club  trip. 


15 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

CO-OPERATIVE  LIVE-STOCK   SHIPPERS' 
ASSOCIATIONS 

The  origin  of  co-operative  live-stock  shippers'  associa- 
tions has  been  generally  credited  to  a  community  about 
Litchfield,  in  Meeker  County,  in  south-central  Minnesota, 
where  it  was  organized  in  1908.  It  has  also  been  reported 
that  this  kind  of  an  association  was  organized  in  Winnesheik 
County,  Iowa,  in  1892.*  Wide-spread  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject of  co-operative  shipping  of  live  stock  dates  from  about 
1912,  and  was  based  upon  the  Minnesota  work.  Prof.  W.  H. 
Tomhave,  then  in  Minnesota,  who  later  removed  to  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College,  gave  much  publicity  to  this  subject.  In 
1916  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  published 
Farmer's  Bulletin  718  on  "Co-operative  Live-Stock  Ship- 
ping Associations,"  and  this  undoubtedly  greatly  promoted 
such  organizations. 

The  plan  of  organizing  co-operative  shipping  associations 
is  comparatively  simple.  A  group  of  men  agree  to  co-op- 
erate in  the  marketing  and  selling  of  their  live  stock.  A 
constitution  and  by-laws  are  framed  to  provide  for  officials 
to  represent  the  management  and  to  look  after  certain  neces- 
sary details  of  organization.  The  constitution  may  briefly 
specify  the  name  of  the  association,  its  business  head- 
quarters, purpose,  and  management.  It  also  provides  for 
membership,  officers,  elections,  amendments,  and  quorum. 
The  by-laws  set  forth  the  vital  details  of  business  manage- 
ment. The  officers  usually  consist  of  a  president,  vice- 
president,  secretary,  treasurer,  and  a  board  of  directors.  The 
latter,  as  a  rule,  appoint  a  manager  whose  business  it  is  to 
look  after  the  marketing  of  the  live  stock.  The  following 

*Harry  R,  O'Brien,  The  Country  Gentleman,  Nov.  15,  1919, 

450 


LIVE-STOCK  SHIPPERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  451 

by-laws,  with  slight  change,  are  the  ones  suggested  in 
Farmer's  Bulletin  718,  and  without  doubt  these  have  been 
widely  adopted  by  most  associations. 

PROPOSED   BY-LAWS   FOR   CO-OPERATIVE    SHIPPING  ASSOCIATIONS 

Article  I.  Delivery  for  shipping.  The  shipment  of  stock  in  this 
association  shall  be  made  regardless  of  membership,  and  the  delivery  of 
stock  to  the  manager  and  the  acceptance  thereof  by  him  binds  the 
shipper  to  the  rules  and  by-laws  of  the  association.  All  who  desire  to 
ship  stock  with  the  association  shall  report  to  the  manager  the  kind  of 
stock,  the  number  of  each  kind,  and  the  approximate  weight  of  each, 
when  it  is  ready  to  be  marketed.  When  a  sufficient  amount  of  live 
stock  has  been  reported  to  be  ready  for  shipment  to  make  a  full  car-load, 
the  manager  shall  order  a  car  for  making  the  shipment,  and  shall  notify 
each  party  having  stock  listed,  and  state  at  what  time  the  stock  is  to  be 
delivered  for  loading.  In  case  of  non-delivery  of  stock  listed  for  ship- 
ment, the  consignor  should  be  assessed  for  the  loss  to  the  association, 
and  in  event  of  his  not  paying  the  same,  should  be  debarred  from  all 
future  privileges. 

Article  II.  Section  1.  Duties  of  the  manager.  The  manager  shall 
be  at  the  yard  on  the  day  the  shipment  is  to  be  made,  unless  he  shall 
have  secured  a  competent  substitute,  and  shall  receive  all  the  stock, 
and  weigh,  mark  and  load  the  same  on  the  car.  He  shall  have  charge 
of  and  direct  the  sale  of  all  shipments,  and  receive  all  money  therefor, 
and  pay  the  same  to  the  shippers,  less  his  commission  and  all  other 
expenses  incurred  in  making  the  shipments,  or  when  so  directed  send 
the  money  by  mail  to  the  shippers.  He  shall  furnish  a  statement  to 
every  shipper,  showing  net  weights,  prices  received,  and  expenses  of 
shipment.  He  shall  keep  on  file  a  complete  statement  of  settlement, 
together  with  returns. from  the  commission  firm  selling  the  live  stock 
for  the  association  or  from  the  purchaser  of  the  stock.  In  a  book  kept 
for  that  purpose,  he  shall  keep  a  record  showing  the  number  of  cars 
shipped,  and  the  amount  of  stock  in  such  cars,  during  the  year.  He 
shall  also  keep  an  account  of  all  disbursements  and  receipts  for  the  as- 
sociation. At  the  annual  meeting  he  shall  furnish  a  detailed  statement 
of  all  business  done  during  the  year. 

Section  2.  Compensation  of  manager.  The  manager  shall  receive 

as  compensation  for  his  services  the  amount  of  cents  per 

hundred  pounds  of  stock  sold  by  him,  and  no  other  compensation  from 
the  association,  except  that  he  shall  have  the  right  to  charge  for  any 
outlay  for  materials  needed  in  making  partitions  to  separate  the  stock 
in  the  car  and  for  bedding,  said  amount  to  be  charged  to  the  expense  of 
the  shipment  for  which  it  was  incurred.  In  by-laws  suggested  by  the 
Wisconsin  University*  we  have  the  following  on  this  subject:  "The 
manager  shall  receive  as  compensation  for  his  services  (a)  the  sum  of 
five  cents  a  100  pounds  for  cattle;  seven  cents  a  100  pounds  for  hogs  and 
ten  cents  a  100  pounds  for  sheep.  Should  there  be  two  or  more  cars  in 
said  shipment,  the  rate  on  additional  cars  shall  be  three  cents  a  100 
pounds  for  cattle,  three  and  one-half  cents  a  100  pounds  for  hogs,  five 
cents  a  100  pounds  for  sheep,  or  (B)  a  flat  rate  of  six  or  seven  cents  a  100 
pounds  on  all  classes  of  live  stock;  or  (C)  a  certain  amount  on  each  car 

*Bulletin  314.    Wisconsin  Live-Stock  Shippers'  Association,  August,  1920. 


452  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

($10.00  for  the  first  car  and  $5.00  for  each  additional  car  is  conceded  to 
be  fair),  or  (D)  an  amount  for  each  day,  as  $6.00  for  the  time  spent  in 
taking  in,  loading  or  accompanying  to  market  a  shipment  of  livestock, 
and  an  amount,  as  $4.00,  for  time  spent  in  doing  office  work." 

Section  3.  Bond  of  manager.  The  manager  shall  furnish  a  satis- 
factory bond,  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  board  of  directors.  Said 
bond  shall  be  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties. 

Article  III.  Section  I.  Sinking  fund.  There  shall  be  deducted 
on  every  100  pounds  of  weight  of  sheep  and  hogs  three  cents,  and  for 
every  100  pounds  of  live  weight  of  cattle  two  cents,  and  the  same  shall 
be  placed  in  the  sinking  fund,  to  be  used  for  the  paying  of  losses  that 
may  occur  to  any  stock  from  the  time  it  comes  into  the  hands  of  the 
manager  until  final  disposition  of  same  is  made. 

Section  2.  Payment  for  losses.  Any  shipper  whose  stock  has  been 
damaged  by  injury  while  in  the  hands  of  the  manager  shall  receive  the 
full  amount  for  the  same  as  though  the  stock  had  not  been  injured,  but 
shall  be  subject  to  the  same  ratio  of  expense  on  the  shipment.  The  pay- 
ment of  the  damage  shall  be  based  on  a  statement  made  by  the  com- 
mission firm  having  charge  of  the  shipment,  or  by  the  purchaser  of  the 
stock,  which  statement  shall  show  the  amount  received  for  the  injured 
animal  and  the  amount  in  their  opinion,  it  would  have  brought  had  it 
not  been  injured.  This  statement  shall  be  the  final  basis  for  settlement. 
No  damage  shall  be  paid  for  an  animal  which  was  not  in  healthy  condi- 
tion when  received  at  the  local  yards  by  the  manager. 

Article  IV.  Section 'l.  Unhealthy  stock.  All  stock  which  must 
be  sold  subject  to  inspection,  except  such  as  has  been  injured  while  in  a 
healthy  condition  and  in  charge  of  the  manager  or  any  diseased  animal, 
shall  be  received  at  the  owner's  risk,  and  he  shall  receive  such  payment 
therefor  as  is  received  by  the  commission  firm  less  all  expenses  figured 
pro  rata  on  the  shipment. 

Ohio  Farm  Bureau  live-stock  shipping  associations  are 

organized  as  incorporated  companies,  although  transacting 
their  business  much  in  general  as  is  done  by  independent 
local  associations.  In  this  method  a  member  of  a  county 
farm  bureau  is  allowed  one  share  of  stock  free  of  expense, 
but  persons  not  members  of  the  local  bureau,  to  become 
stockholders,  must  pay  $30.00.  Persons  not  members  of  the 
farm  bureau  or  of  the  shipping  association  pay  a  special  sum, 
as,  for  example,  10  cents  per  100  pounds,  on  all  species  of 
live  stock  marketed,  which  money  is  credited  to  the  operat- 
ing fund.  The  sinking  fund,  which  is  used  to  pay  operat- 
ing expenses,  and  for  losses  on  live  stock,  is  derived  from 
such  charges  per  100  pounds  live  weight  of  cattle,  hogs  or 
sheep  marketed,  as  the  directors  may  determine.!  The  man- 
agers do  all  the  prorating,  while  in  the  independent  associa- 


LIVE-STOCK  SHIPPERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  453 

tions  it  is  done  by  commission  firms  or  other  salesmen.  One 
great  advantage  in  the  Ohio  method  is  that  all  the  companies 
shipping  under  the  farm  bureau  federation  are  assisted  in 
time  of  trouble  with  transportation  agencies,  in  securing  im- 
portant legislation,  etc.,  by  the  state  federation  officials. 
Late  in  1921  there  were  about  fifty  county  associations  in 
Ohio  working  under  the  farm  bureau  federation. 

The  manager  of  a  co-operative  live-stock  shipping  asso- 
ciation is  largely  responsible  for  the  success  of  the  organiza- 
tion. He  should  be  strictly  honest,  have  good  judgment  in 
business  matters,  possess  a  rather  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  live-stock  market,  and  should  be  a  seasoned  judge  of 
animals  and  their  market  values.  Further,  in  view  of  the 
jealousy  and  friction  so  likely  to  occur  among  a  group  of 
people  mutually  engaged  in  business,  he  should  be  tactful 
and  gracious  in  his  dealings  with  others,  thus  harmonizing 
interests  and  making  friends  for  the  association.  It  is  also 
an  asset  to  have  a  manager  of  attractive  personality,  some- 
thing that  is  too  often  overlooked.  The  manager  should 
visit  the  farms  of  members  of  the  association,  and,  whenever 
desirable,  offer  suggestions  that  will  result  in  improving  the 
stock  to  be  sold  through  the  association.  It  will  also  be 
desirable  for  the  manager  to  make  occasional  visits  to  the 
markers,  that  he  may  keep  in  touch  with  conditions  there. 

The  marking  of  stock  of  shipping  associations  is  necessary, 
for  in  many  cases  car  loads  are  made  up  of  shipments  from 
more  than  one  person.  Each  shipper  should  have  a  number 
or  some  character  by  which  his  stock  may  be  marked  and  so 
easily  identified.  There  are  several  methods  of  marking. 
An  old  European  custom  is  to  clip  Roman  numerals  4  inches 
or  so  long  in  the  hair  on  the  rumps  of  cattle.  This  marking 
is  easily  done  with  either  straight  or  curved  blade  scissors. 
Metal  ear  tags,  on  which  numbers  are  stenciled,  may  be  used 
for  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep;  but  these  are  not  entirely  satis- 
factory, for  the  reason  that  the  numbers,  being  small,  can 


454  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  AXIMALS 

not  always  be  easily  read.  Hogs  are  commonly  marked  with 
paint  that  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  color  of  the  animal. 
Stripes  about  an  inch  wide  are  made  across  the  back  with  a 
common  paint  brush.  A  combination  of  different  colors, 
with  variations  in  arrangement  and  position  on  the  animals, 
will  allow  for  giving  numerous  lots  of  hogs  marks  by  which 
they  may  be  easily  identified.  "In  many  associations,"  ac- 


Figure  212. — A  method  of  marketing  hogs.     Note  the  marks  on  the  back.     Repro- 
duced from  Bulletin  314  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 

cording  to  Farmer's  Bulletin  718,  "hogs  are  not  marked,  but 
those  of  each  shipper  are  graded  by  the  manager  at  the 
shipping  point,  and  a  record  of  sows,  boars,  and  stags,  sub- 
ject to  dockage  is  kept.  In  this  case  the  hogs  are  pooled  at 
the  market  and  shrinkage  is  prorated  on  the  basis  of  weight. 
As  a  matter  of  protection  to  the  owners,  however,  the  mark- 
ing of  hogs  is  strongly  advocated;  because,  in  case  hogs  of 
a  certain  mark  show  that  they  have  been  'stuffed'  before 


LIVE-STOCK  SHIPPERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  455 

delivery  or  that  they  have  shrunk  excessively  or  there  is  a 
discrepancy  in  dockage,  proper  adjustments  can  be  made." 
Sheep  are  commonly  marked  with  washable  paint,  rather 
than  ordinary  oil  paint,  which  injures  the  wool,  and  can  not 
be  scoured  out.  Combinations  of  colors  and  marks  on  top 
of  head  or  back  may  be  used,  such  as  will  allow  for  identify- 
ing ownership  of  many  animals. 

Uniform  grading  of  shipments  of  live  stock  is  very  desir- 
able, if  possible.  It  is  quite  customary  for  hogs  of  the  same 
grade,  even  though  shipped  by  several  parties,  to  be  sold 
together  as  one  lot,  and  the  settlement  afterwards  prorated. 
This  method  reduces  extra  labor  of  weighing  different  lots. 

The  sinking  fund  of  the  co-operative  shipping  associa- 
tion as  set  forth  in  the  by-laws  is  for  the  purpose  of  paying 
for  losses  incurred  while  live  stock  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
association.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  an  insurance  fund.  A 
common  custom  in  creating  this  fund  is  to  deduct  two  cents 
per  100  weight  on  cattle  and  3  cents  on  hogs,  sheep,  and 
calves.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  plan,  however,  as,  for 
example,  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  proceeds  of  shipment 
may  be  charged,  2  per  cent  being  a  fair  amount. 

The  expense  of  co-operative  shipping  varies  with  the  local 
conditions,  the  distance  from  the  market,  and  the  section  of 
country  where  transportation  takes  place.  Figures  com- 
piled in  Wisconsin*  relating  to  seventy  associations  show 
home  expenses,  including  manager's  salary,  labor,  incidentals, 
and  sinking  fund  contribution,  to  amount  to  $25  per  car; 
the  freight  expense  averaged  $38  per  car,  while  the  terminal 
market  charges  show  that  for  selling,  commission,  yardage, 
feed,  and  bedding,  the  average  expense  was  $30  per  car,  or 
a  total  of  $93.  The  Wisconsin  authorities  estimate  the  ex- 
pense of  marketing  a  car  load  of  live  stock  of  that  state  to 
range  from  $50  to  $150  or  from  2J^  to  7J/2  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  the  live  stock.  The  1917  experience  of  203  Minne- 
sota associations  showed  the  cost  of  central  market  expenses 

*Bulletin  314,  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


456 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


and  freight  to  be  $34.15  per  car  load,  and  home  expenses 
>.50,  a  total  per  car  of  $50.65.* 

Original 

Live-Stock  Shipping  Association 

Member's  Statement 


.,  192_ 


Account  of_ 


.  O.. 


_R.  F.  D. 


No. 

Kind 

Shrink 
Gain 

Dock 

Market 
weight 

Price 

Amount 

Total 



Expenses 

Rate 

Amount 

Calves  
Cattle  
<=!hppp 





















Membership 

Total 

Inclosed  find  check  No.. 


for  balance  $_ 


Please  ask  about  anything  not  understood.     Complete  statement  of  each  shipment 
is  on  file. 

Manager 

Figure  213. — Sample  of  Member's  Statement  in  a  live-stock  shipper's 
association. 

The  advantages  from  selling  live  stock  co-operatively  are 
considerable.  There  is  no  expense  for  soliciting  business, 
and  the  method  does  away  with  unnecessary  stock  buyers 
in  a  community,  reducing  the  number  to  one  paid  employe. 
One  of  the  main  arguments  in  favor  of  co-operative  market-- 
ing is  the  reduced  cost  of  selling  due  to  the  fact  that  one  per- 
son in  a  community  represents  the  producers  in  this  respect. 
Estimates  from  managers  of  150  Wisconsin  associations  have 

*Farmer3*  Co-operation  in  Minnesota  1913-17.     Bulletin  184  Univ.  of   Minnesota. 


LIVE-STOCK  SHIPPERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  457 

placed  the  savings  in  shipping  from  20  cents  to  $2.50  per 
hundred  weight,  and  from  $15  to  $250  a  car.  The  great 
majority  of  estimates  lie  between  $50  and  $150  a  car,  and, 
on  the  basis  of  the  lower  figure,  this  estimate  would  indicate 
a  saving  of  $1,500,000  a  year  to  the  members  of  the  150 
associations.*  Mr.  G.  W.  Hurlbert,  of  Iowa,  in  reporting 
on  shipping  associations  in  that  state,  f  says  it  is  estimated 
that  in  1918  300  associations  in  Iowa  shipped  $75,000,000 
worth  of  live  stock.  "If,"  says  Mr.  Hurlbert,  "the  farmers 
saved  only  $0.25  to  $0.85  per  100  pounds,  the  total  saving 
would  be  around  $2,500,000.  The  total  business  of  all  the 
live-stock  shipping  associations  for  1918  is  estimated  at 
$500,000,000.  That  sum  means  that  a  total  saving  of  about 
$10,000,000  was  made  by  the  farmers  of  the  country  in 
that  year  by  the  co-operative  shipping  of  live  stock." 

Another  great  advantage  in  co-operative  shipping  is  the 
protective  side  of  the  sinking  fund  and  reimbursement  for 
animals  that  die  or  are  injured  enroute.  Where  under  old 
conditions  an  animal  might  be  nearly  an  entire  loss  to  the 
shipper,  by  the  co-operative  method  he  is  saved  a  large 
amount  through  the  sinking  fund. 

Members  of  co-operative  associations  are  usually  in 
closer  touch  with  the  market,  and  thus  more  familiar  with 
comparative  values  than  non-members.  They  check  up  on 
the  manager  and  show  an  interest  in  results  from  the  sales 
of  others  as  well  as  themselves. 

A  difficulty  associated  with  co-operative  marketing  is 
holding  the  members  together  and  supporting  the  organiza- 
tion. Prof.  H.  E.  Erdman  writes  :§ 

"Not  only  do  co-operators  gain  by  collective  sale,  but  non- 
co-operators  as  well  usually  obtain  higher  prices,  since  competi- 
tors are  spurred  on  even  to  the  extent,  at  times,  of  over- 
bidding. Here,  in  fact,  is  one  of  the  biggest  weaknessess  of  collective 
selling  as  well  as  of  collective  buying.  It  is  very  difficult  to  hold  an 
association  together  for  collective  dealing  when  members  see  that  non- 
members  get  as  good  rates  as  they,  with  no  dues  to  pay.  The  real  ques- 

*Bulletin  314  Wisconsin  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 

t Hoards'  Dairyman.  December  5,  1919. 

§Bulletin  342  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station.     Organizations  among  Ohio  Farmers. 


458  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

tion,  however,  is  not  whether  farm  prices  are  higher  than  before  the 
introduction  of  collective  selling,  but  rather  whether  collective  selling 
provides  selling  service  at  lower  rates  than  similar  services  would  be 
performed  under  competition.  The  answer  is  usually  yes,  provided 
such  selling  is  efficiently  done." 

SUBJECTS  FOR  REVIEW 

1.  When  the  first  live-stock  shipping  association  was  organized. 

2.  Conditions  of  delivery  for  shipping. 

3.  The  duties  of  the  manager. 

4.  The  compensation  of  the  manager. 

5.  Conditions  under  which  losses  are  paid. 

6.  How  the  Ohio  federation  system  differs  from  the  independent  one. 

7.  Methods  of  marking  live  stock  for  shipping. 

8.  The  expense  of  co-operative  shipping. 

9.  Financial  sayings  from  co-operation. 

10.  A  weakness  in  the  co-operative  method. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

11.  Compare  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  different  associations. 

12.  Visit  one  or  more  local  associations  and  study  their  work. 

13.  Which  is  more  satisfactory,  settlements  for  losses  through  reg- 

ular dealers  or  through  association  management? 

14.  What  forms  of  marking  are  most  popular  locally? 

15.  Interview  ten  patrons  and  ascertain  their  experiences. 

16.  Is  co-opejative  shipping  growing  in  favor  locally  or  not?    Why? 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

A  classification  of  domestic  poultry  includes  a  number  of 
different  kinds,  each  consisting  of  a  group  with  its  types 
and  breeds.  The  following  is  a  classification  commonly 
used. 

1.  Fowls  and  chickens  5.  Pheasants. 

2.  Turkeys.  6.  Ducks. 

3.  Guineas.  7.  Geese. 

4.  Peafowls.  8.  Swans. 

FOWLS 

The  types  of  domestic  fowls  may  be  classified  into  four 
groups,  namely: 

1.  Egg-laying.  3.  General-purpose. 

2.  Meat.  4.  Ornamental. 

For  some  time  poultry  students  have  discussed  these 
types,  but  more  especially  three,  which  from  a  practical  point 
of  view  are  the  only  ones  of  interest  to  the  farmer.  These 
three  are  the  laying,  the  meat,  and  the  general-purpose  fowls. 
Good  examples  of  each  of  these  types  are  common  all  over 
the  country.  The  other  three  types  are  rarely  raised  on 
the  farm,  being  the  product  of  the  fancier,  who  oftentimes 
has  his  poultry  outfit  on  a  town  lot.  The  breeds  are  also 
sometimes  divided  into  two  classes,  sitters  and  non-sitters, 
according  to  whether  or  not  the  hens  have  the  desire  to 
sit  on  and  hatch  a  nest  of  eggs. 

The  egg-laying  type  of  fowl,  according  to  Prof.  H.  R. 
Lewis,*  should  show  a  well  balanced,  deep,  nearly  rect- 
angular body,  well  developed  in  breast  and  abdomen.  Great 

*Judging  Fowls  for  egg  production.  Hints  to  Poultrymen,  vol.  8,  No.  2.  New 
Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  1919. 

459 


460  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

depth  of  body  is  especially  desirable,  but  apparent  depth 
must  not  be  due  to  loose  feathering,  which  is  generally 
shown  by  an  evidence  of  loose  thigh  feathers.  Large  cap- 
acity is  essential,  if  a  hen  is  to  lay  long  and  heavily.  Such 
capacity  is  designated  by  a  body  that  is  deeper  at  the  rear 
end  of  the  keel  than  at  the  front  end.  The  underline  should 
be  fairly  straight  and  the  back  should  be  comparatively 
horizontal.  Prominent  breast  development  and  evidence  of 
a  long  keel  are  desirable  qualities  in  a  high-producing  hen. 
The  general  body  conformation  of  a  heavy  producer  con- 


Figure  214. — The  egg-laying  type  of  fowl.     Photograph  from  Poultry  Herald. 

forms  very  closely  to  a  rectangle  with  pronounced  angles 
rather  than  smooth  curves.  A  male  shows  the  same  gen- 
eral characteristics  as  a  female  except  that  the  abdomen  is 
not  so  deep.  Fowls  of  this  type  vary  somewhat  in  size  and 
weight  as  well  as  in  flesh-producing  capacity.  The  Leg- 
horns are  small,  the  hens  weighing  around  3  pounds,  and  do 
not  produce  much  meat  on  the  body,  while  the  Minorcas  are 
larger,  the  hens  weighing  about  6J/2  pounds,  and  may  carry 
a  good  amount  of  flesh  when  in  best  condition.  The  fowls 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


461 


of  this  type  are  of   European   ancestry   and   are   usually 

known  among  poultry  specialists  as  the  Mediterranean  breeds. 
The  meat  type  of  fowl 

is  said  to  be   comparable 

to  the  draft  horse,    beef 

cattle,  mutton  sheep,  and 

the  fat  hog.  It  is  squarely 

built,     compact,     thickly 

fleshed,  wide  of  back  and 

breast,  and  heavy  of  limb. 

Fowls  of  this  type,  when 

fat,  have  a  carcass  thickly 

covered   with   meat,   and 

are  especially  valued   for 

roasting.     The  hens,  as  a 

rule,  are  of  sluggish  dis- 
position and   are   inferior  Figure  215.-Meat-type  of  fowl.   Photograph 

egg-producers.   The  meat-  from  Poultfy  Herald- 

type  fowls  sometimes  weigh  10  to  12  pounds.     They  are  of 

Asiatic  origin,  and  are 
represented  by  the  Brah- 
ma, Cochin,  and  Lang- 
shan  breeds. 

The  general  -  purpose 
type  of  fowl,  as  might  be 
supposed,  is  valued  for 
both  egg  and  meat  pro- 
duction. This  type  is 
medium  in  size,  has  con- 
siderable fullness  of  breast 
and  width  of  back,  and 
fattens  to  advantage.  In 
egg  production  some 

Figure  216.— General-purpose  type.     A  White    general  -  purpose         breeds 

have     excellent     records. 


462 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Standard  weights  vary,  but  7  pounds  for  the  hens  and  9  for 
the  cocks  are  satisfactory.  Fowls  of  the  general-purpose 
type,  as  a  rule,  belong  to  the  American  breeds,  of  which 
the  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  and  Rhode  Island  Red  are 
the  most  common  examples. 

The  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  include  a  large  num- 
ber of  wide  difference,  ranging  from  the  tiny  Bantam  to  the 
large  and  heavy  Brahma.  The  breed  characters  of  form,  as 
applied  to  head,  body,  and  legs,  are  rather  distinct  in  each 

case.  The  variety  charac- 
teristics are  usually  shown 
in  color  of  feathers,  though 
there  may  be  other  special 
features,  such  as  single  or 
rose  comb.  The  Ply  mouth 
Rock,  for  example,  in- 
cludes six  varieties;  name- 
ly, (1)  barred,  (2)  white, 
(3)  buff,  (4)  silver  pencil- 
ed, (5)  partridge,  and  (6) 
Columbian.  The  follow- 
ing very  brief  descriptions 
of  some  of  the  leading 
breeds  in  America,  in- 


217.—  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cock-  clude  the  more  important 

erel,  1st  prize  at  Indianapolis.     Photograph  ^  A 

from  Poultry  Herald.  representatives  of  each. 

The  Plymouth  Rock  originated  in  America,  and  is  of 
medium  size.  The  head  is  surmounted  by  a  single,  upright 
red  comb,  and  the  ear  lobes  and  wattles  are  also  red.  The 
neck  is  broad,  breast  full  and  wide,  back  broad,  and  body 
compact.  Beak,  legs,  toes,  and  skin  should  be  yellow  in 
color.  This  breed  is  hardy  and  matures  early,  furnishing 
excellent  broilers  when  eight  to  twelve  weeks  old.  The  hens 
are  moderate  layers,  the  eggs  being  of  a  brown  color.  This 
is  a  sitting  breed,  and  the  hens  make  excellent  mothers. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  463 


The  mature  males  weigh  9J/2,  and  the  females  7J/2  pounds. 
Varieties  of  this  breed  differ  only  in  color  of  feathers. 

The  Wyandotte  originated  in  America,  and  is  of  medium 
size,  with  a  form  very  similar  to  the  Plymouth  Rock.  These 
two  breeds  look  very  much  alike  when  fowls  of  the  same 
color  are  compared.  The  Wyandotte,  however,  should  have 
an  outline  of  form  somewhat  shorter  and  deeper  in  its  lines 
than  the  Plymouth  Rock.  This  breed  has  a  rose  comb  in- 
stead of  a  single  form,  and 
red  ear  lobes  and  wattles. 
The  legs  are  yellow. 
Wyandottes  are  excellent 
layers,  but  their  eggs  are 
of  small  size,  brown  in 
color.  These  fowls  are 
valued  for  broiling  and 
roasting,  for  their  flesh 
is  of  fine  grain  and  quality. 
The  mature  males  have 
a  standard  weight  of  8J/2 
pounds  and  the  females 
6J/2  pounds.  Wyandottes 
are  extremely  popular. 

The  Rhode  Island  Red 
derives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  it  originated  in  FlFiJst 
the  state  of  Rhode  Island.  from  ~Poultry  Success' 
The  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  in  referring  to  these 
fowls,  states  that  "their  chief  characteristics  are:  red  color, 
oblong  shape,  compact  form,  and  smooth  surface  plum- 
age." This  is  a  medium-sized  breed,  mature  males 
weighing  8J/6,  and  the  females  6J/2  pounds.  The  comb 
is  either  single  or  rose  in  form,  and  of  medium  size. 
The  shank  and  feet  should  be  yellow  or  reddish  horn  in 
color.  This  breed  has  become  quite  popular  on  account 


464 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure      219. — White      Orpington      hen 
Photograph  from  Poultry  Herald. 


of  its  merit  as  a  table  fowl  and  for  egg  production.     The 

Rhode  Island  Red,  however,  is  more  or  less  criticized  for 

lack  of  uniformity  in  plum- 
age color  and  excessive 
broodiness  during  the 
spring  season. 

The  Orpington  was  first 
developed  in  the  town  of 
Orpington,  England,  from 
which  it  receives  its  name. 
There  is  no  great  difference 
between  this  breed  and  the 
general-purpose  American 
breeds,  except  that  the 
Orpington  is  somewhat 
heavier,  and  has  skin  that 

is  white  with  a  tendency  to  pink  tint,  and  black  or  flesh- 
colored  legs.    The  comb 

may  be  of  the  single  or 

rose  form.  The  ear  lobes 

are  red.  There  are  three 

varieties,    white,    black, 

and  buff.      The  mature 

males  weigh  10  and  the 

females  8  pounds.    The 

Orpington      in      recent 

years  has  become   very 

popular,  ranking  high  for 

table   use   and    for    egg 

production.  Hens  of  this 

variety  tend  to  be  unrea- 
sonably broody. 

The    Leghorn    is    a 

v  „._  j     .^f     Tp,, «.-._.,  Figure  220. — A  vigorous  White  Leghorn  cock 

Dreed    Ot     European     OH-  |t     Cornell     University.     Eleven     of     his 

rri™        r™f±;^>«.      Ud  daughters  averaged  197  eggs  each  in  a  year. 

gin,       getting      itS     name  Photograph  from   Dr.   O.   B.   Kent. 


TYPES  AND  BRE'EDS  OF  POULTRY 


465 


name  from  Leghorn,  Italy.  This  is  distinctly  an  egg-laying 
breed.  The  features  of  importance  are  large,  single,  or 
rose  comb,  the  single  comb  on  the  hens  drooping  to  one  side. 
The  head  is  small,  the  eye  of  good  size,  ear  lobes  white, 
comb  and  wattles  red,  and  beak,  legs,  and  skin  yellow.  The 
breast  is  prominent,  though  not  very  wide;  the  back  of 
medium  width  and  length,  the  feathers  snugly  laid  to  the 
body,  and  the  tail  carried  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 
The  Leghorn  is  very  hardy  and  one  of  the  most  active  breeds 
of  fowl,  rather  small  of  size,  and  famous  for  egg  production. 
The  females  are  non  -  sitters. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  Leg- 
horns, of  which  the  white,  brown, 
and  buff  are  most  common. 
Mature  males  weigh  about  4 
pounds  and  females  3.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  common  breeds 
kept  on  American  farms;  in  fact, 
it  is  almost  universally  the  one 
that  is  used  especially  for  egg 
production  on  a  large  scale. 

The  Minorca  is  an  egg-laying, 
non-sitting  breed,  originating  on 
the  island  of  Minorca  in  the  Med- 
iterranean  sea.  The  following  is  quoted  from  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection:  "They  are  distinguished  by  long 
bodies,  very  large  combs,  long  full  wattles,  large  white  ear 
lobes,  dark  colored  legs,  and  pinkish-white  or  flesh-colored 
skin.  The  Minorca  head  is  carried  rather  high;  the  back  is 
long  and  sloping;  the  tail  is  spread  somewhat  and  only 
moderately  elevated,  being  carried  at  an  angle  of  40  degrees 
from  the  horizontal.  Their  legs  are  firm,  muscular,  and  set 
squarely  under  the  long,  powerful-looking  bodies."  There 
are  both  single  and  rose  comb  strains  of  this  br.eed.  Notable 
egg  producers,  the  Minorcas  rank  as  a  close  second  to  the 


ald- 


466 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Leghorns  and,  furthermore,  they  are    known  as  the  breed 
producing  the  largest  egg,  which  is  white  in  color. 

The  Light  Brahma  is  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  has  been 
known  in  America  for  many  years.  It  is  strictly  of  the  meat 
type,  and  is  the  largest  breed  of  fowls,  the  mature  males 
weighing  12  pounds  and  the  females  9J/2  pounds.  The  head 
is  of  medium  size,  with  a  small  pea  comb,  medium-sized  red 
wattles,  and  large  red  ear  lobes.  The  breast  is  very  broad 
and  full,  the  back  wide,  the  legs,  toes,  and  skin  yellow,  and 

the  shanks  feathered.  The  neck, 
tail,  and  large  wing  feathers  are 
black,  and  white  striped  with 
black,  the  other  feathers  being 
white.  This  breed  is  valued  for 
roasting,  but  does  not  rate  high 
in  egg  production.  There  is 
another  variety  called  the  Dark 
Brahma,  but  neither  of  these 
varieties  is  longer  popular,  and  but 
few  flocks  are  now  kept,  although 
they  once  were  common. 

The  Cochin  is  also  an  Asiatic 
breed,  large  in  size,  like  the 
Brahma,  a  standard  weight  for 
males  being  11  pounds  and  for 
females  9J/2  pounds.  This  is  a  deep-bodied,  massive  fowl, 
having  a  loose  plumage  with  much  downy  fiber  under- 
neath, which  gives  the  entire  body  a  fluffy  appearance. 
The  legs  are  heavily  feathered.  These  fowls  are  valued  for 
roasters  rather  than  for  egg  production.  There  are  four 
varieties  of  Cochins,  buff,  black,  white,  and  partridge. 

The  Langshan  is  a  single-combed  Asiatic  breed,  some- 
what smaller  and  more  active  than  the  Brahma  or  Cochin, 
and  much  more  popular,  both  for  meat  and  for  egg  produc- 
tion. There  are  two  varieties,  the  black  and  the  white. 


Figure  222. — Light  Brahma  hen, 
Lady  V,  first  at  Chicago.  Photo- 
graph from  Poultry  Herald. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  467 


The  males  weigh  9J/2  pounds  and  the  females  1Y^  pounds,  at 
maturity.  There  is  much  fullness  of  breast,  and  the  form 
is  compact.  The  legs  of  the  black  variety  are  bluish  colored, 
and  slightly  feathered.  The  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes  are  bright  red  in  color. 

There  are  many  other  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls, 
but  these  are  usually  kept  only  in  a  small  way  by  poultry 
fanciers  and  do  not  need  attention  here. 

The  bantam  may  be  a  dwarf  of  some  of  the  larger  breeds 
or  a  distinct  breed.  Bantams  are  kept  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, and  have  no  practical  value.  The  weights  naturally 
vary  somewhat,  but  26  ounces  for  mature  males,  and  22 
ounces  for  the  females  are  standards.  The  Cochin  and 
Brahma  bantams  weigh  slightly  more,  30  ounces  for  the 
male  and  26  for  the  female.  The  bantams  make  very  inter- 
esting pets  for  children. 

THE  TURKEY 

The  turkey  is  a  native  of  America  and  was  unknown  in 
Europe  previous  to  1624.  The  present  domesticated  turkey 
originated  from  the  wild  stock  which  once  was  found  in 
large  numbers  in  this  country,  and  is  yet  found  to  a  small 
extent  in  certain  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  southern 
states.  According  to  the  Standard  of  Perfection  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  the  frame  of  the  turkey 
should  be  large,  the  body  deep,  "with  a  broad,  round,  full 
breast  that  varies  in  prominence  according  to  the  variety." 
The  head  should  be  of  good  size,  and  the  eyes  bright  and 
alert.  The  leg  and  shank  bones  should  be  large,  straight, 
and  well  set.  The  carriage  should  be  proud  and  erect. 
There  are  but  few  breeds  of  turkeys,  and  but  one  that  may 
be  regarded  as  common. 

The  Bronze  turkey  is  very  large,  and  the  feathers  are 
bronze  or  brown  black,  with  shadings  of  color.  The  stand- 
dard  weight  for  an  adult  male  is  36  pounds,  and  for  the  hen, 


468 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


20    pounds.     This   is  the  most    common    variety    raised. 
The  Narragansett  turkey  is  of  a  metallic  black  color, 
with  shadings  to  steel  gray  or  approaching  white.     Mature 
cocks  weigh  about  30  pounds  and  hens  18  pounds. 

The  White  Holland  turkey,  as  its  name  indicates,  has  a 
white  plumage.  The  beard  of  the  male,  however,  is  a  deep 
black  in  color.  Mature  cocks  weigh  about  28  pounds  and 
hens  18  pounds.  This  is  not  as  hardy  a  variety  as  the 

Bronze  or  Narragansett, 
but  its  flesh  is  highly  re- 
garded, and  it  is  the 
most  domestic  and  easily 
controlled  of  all  the 
breeds. 

The  Bourbon  Red 
turkey  is  a  native  of 
Bourbon  county,  Ken- 
tucky, and  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  from 
what  in  early  days  in 
Kentucky  was  known  as 
the  wild  yellow  turkey. 
The  neck,  breast,  back, 
body,  and  fluff  of  this 
breed  are  of  a  deep, 
brownish  red.  It  has  about  the  same  weight  as  the  Narra- 
gansett, the  males  weighing  about  30  pounds  and  the  hens  18. 

THE  DUCK 

The  Mallard,  or  common  wild  duck,  is  regarded  as  the 
parent  stock,  or  ancestor,  of  all  domestic  ducks.  This  duck 
has  a  broad  flat  bill,  small  eye,  good-sized  head,  long  neck, 
full  breast,  long  body,  short  tail,  and  short  web-footed  legs. 
The  body  has  a  dense  covering  of  downy  feathers,  over  which 
lies  the  feathery  plumage.  The  thick  plumage,  which  is 


Figure  223.— A  Bronze  turkey, 
from  Poultry  Herald. 


Photograph 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY  469 

characteristic  of  water  fowl,  is  oiled  by  a  natural  secretion, 
which  prevents  water  from  penetrating  among  the  feathers. 

Three  types  of  ducks  are  recognized,  meat,  egg-laying, 
and  ornamental.  Those  which  best  supply  the  needs  of  the 
table  for  meat  are  most  in  demand. 

The  Pekin  duck  was  brought  to  England  from  Pekin, 
China,  in  1874.  It  is  white  in  color  and  of  large  size,  weigh- 
ing 7  to  9  pounds,  and  is  the  most  popular  duck  for  table 
use.  The  bill  is  orange-yellow  in  color,  while  the  shanks 
and  toes  are  reddish  orange.  The  Pekin  duck  may  be  re- 


Figure  224. — Pekin  ducks  on  a  Rhode  Island  farm.     Photograph  by  Chas.  X. 

Arnold. 

garded  as  the  universal  favorite  where  duck  culture  is  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale  in  the  United  States. 

The  Aylesbury  duck  is  white  and  much  resembles  the 
Pekin.  The  bill  is  flesh-colored,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are 
pale  orange.  The  standard  weight  is  the  same  as  the  Pekin. 
These  ducks  are  more  popular  in  England,  where  they  have 
been  bred  many  years,  than  they  are  in  America. 

The  Rouen  duck  is  a  breed  that  takes  its  name  from  a 
city  in  northern  France,  where  it  has  long  been  bred.  It  is 
grayish  in  color,  with  dark  shadings  or  black  on  head,  neck, 


470 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


wings,  and  back.     The  bill  is  of  greenish-yellow  color,  and 
the  legs  and  feet  orange  with  a  green  or  brown  shade. 

The  Cayuga  duck  originated  in  Cayuga  County,  New 
York.  It  is  greenish-black  in  color,  except  some  of  the  large 
wing  feathers,  which  are  brown.  The  bill  is  black,  and  the 
legs  preferably  black,  though  slate  color  occurs. 

The  Muscovy  duck  is  a  native  of  South  America.  In  size 
it  is  very  large,  adult  drakes  weighing  10  pounds  and  females 

7  pounds.  The  body  is  long 
and  broad,  and  is  carried 
nearly  horizontally.  The 
head  is  rather  long,  and  large 
with  the  male,  and  has  large 
crest-like  feathers,  which  the 
duck  often  raises  when  ex- 
cited. The  head  is  partly 
bare  of  feathers,  and  the  sides 
and  top  above  the  bill  have 
rough  wart-like  coverings 
known  as  caruncles,  which 
are  red  of  color  and  rather 
conspicuous.  The  bill  is 
pink  or  flesh-colored.  Color- 
ed Muscovies  have  yellow  to 
dark  lead-colored  legs,  while 
those  of  the  white  variety 
are  yellow.  The  plumage 
varies  in  color,  but  white  or  black-and-white  are  the 
favorite  varieties.  Ducks  of  this  breed  fly  much  more  than 
others,  and  sometimes  perch  on  elevated  places. 

The  Indian  Runner  duck  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  India.  It  is  rather  small,  a  standard  weight  being  about 
4  pounds  at  maturity.  The  body,  which  is  long  and  nar- 
row, is  carried  somewhat  erect,  after  the  style  of  the  wild 
penguin.  The  popular  color  is  fawn  or  gray  and  white. 


Figure  225. —  A  "rapid  growth" 
Pekin  Duck  eight  weeks  old. 
Reproduced  by  courtesy  Cyphers 
Incubator  Company. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 


471 


The  claim  is  made  that  the  young  ducks  at  6  weeks  of  age 
dress  into  broilers  weighing  2J/2  to  3  pounds.  This  duck, 
however,  is  valued  chiefly  for  egg  production,  a  female 
occasionally  laying  as  many  as  200  eggs  in  a  year. 

THE  GOOSE 

The  domesticated  breeds  of  geese  have  been  developed 
from  the  wild  breeds,  but  more  especially  the  common  Can- 
adian wild  goose,  which  is  often  domesticated  and  kept  in 
confinement.  So  common  is  this  wild  goose  in  confinement 
that  it  is  standardized  in  the  American  Poultry  Association 
Standard  of  Perfection.  It  has  a  black  head  with  white 
stripe,  a  gray  body,  and  adults  weigh  from  10  to  12  pounds. 
There  are  several  breeds  of  importance. 

The  Embden  goose  is  of  European  origin.  It  is  of 
medium  size,  adult  ganders  weighing  about  20  pounds.  The 

bill  and  legs  are  orange 
in  color,  and  the  plum- 
age is  white.  This  is  a 
very  popular  breed. 

The  Toulouse  goose 
gets  its  name  from  a 
city  of  that  name  in 
France.  It  is  of  large 
size,  adults  weighing 
about  25  pounds.  The 
bill  is  pale  orange  and 
the  legs  a  deep  shade  of 
that  color.  The  plum- 
age is  gray,  with  dark 
shadings  about  the  neck, 

Figure     226.— Toulouse     geese.     Photograph        back,   wingS,  and    breast, 
from  Poultry  Herald.  &   ' 

Most  of  our  domestic 
flocks  of  commercial  importance  consist  of  these  two  breeds. 


472  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  REFLECTION 

1.  What  makes  the  six  types  of  domestic  fowls? 

2.  Describe  the  egg-laying  type  of  hen. 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  breed  and  a  variety? 

4.  Compare  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  the  Wyandotte. 

5.  Compare  the  Light  Brahma  and  the  Leghorn. 

6.  Name  the  place  of  origin  of  each  of  five  breeds  of  fowls. 

7.  Discuss  the  origin  of  the  turkey. 

8.  What  are  common  features  of  different  breeds  of  ducks? 

9.  Compare  the  Pekin  and  Rouen  ducks. 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  the  Muscovy 

duck? 

DO  YOU  THINK  YOU  COULD 

11.  Give  the  names  of  five  men  keeping  pure-bred  poultry  in  your 

neighborhood,  and  the  breeds  they  keep? 

12.  Bring  a  small  collection  of  eggs  of  different  breeds  to  school? 

13.  Interest  local  poultrymen  to  arrange  a  small  poultry  show  for  the 

benefit  of  the  school? 

14.  Weigh  some  specimens  of   live  poultry  of  different  breeds  and 

report  on  the  age  and  weight  of  each? 

15.  Bring  to  school  specimens  of  feathers  showing  breed  colors? 


CHAPTER  XL 
JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS 

The  poultry  judge  who  understands  his  work  must  be 
familiar  with  many  details.     There  is  in  this  country  an 

POttfTfi 


Figure  227. — Diagram  of  the  exterior  of  the  fowl.      Reproduced  from  Farmer's 
Bulletin  806,   United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

organization  known  as  the  American  Poultry  Association 
This  devotes  much  attention  to  the  establishment  of  stand- 

473 


474 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


ards  of  perfection  for  the  various  breeds  and  varieties  of 
fowls,  and  provides  rules  and  methods  for  judging  fowls.  A 
book  published  by  the  association,  known  as  the  "Standard 
of  Perfection,"  is  the  American  authority  for  judges  and  stu- 
dents to  follow.  No  poultry  show  in  which  the  breeds  and 
varieties  are  exhibited  could  be  properly  conducted  with- 
out the  judge's  being  guided  by  this  standard.  No  breed 
of  fowls  can  be  regarded  as  established  until  officially  rec- 
ognized and  described  by  the  American  Poultry  Association. 

The  parts  of 
the  fowl  passed 
on  by  the  judge 
have  certain  out- 
lines, colors,  and 
other  markings 
as  applied  to 
each  breed.  The 
feathers  differ  in 
size  and  form  in 
a  striking  way, 
according  to 
their  location  on 
the  body.  The 
illustration  of  a 
male  bird  on 
page  473  shows, 
through  a  num- 
bering system,  the  location  of  the  parts  and  feathers. 

The  head  of  the  fowl  is  one  of  the  striking  breed  features. 
It  is  topped  with  a  comb,  which  is  larger  on  the  cocks  than 
on  the  hens.  A  very  common  form  is  single,  upright  or 
lopped,  the  top  being  serrated,  or  separated  into  points  sug- 
gesting the  teeth  of  a  saw.  Leghorn  and  Plymouth  Rock 
varieties  have  this  form.  The  rose  comb  is  wide  and  low, 
consisting  of  many  knobs  crowded  together,  the  rear  part 


Figure    228. — White    Leghorn    cockerel    showing    single 
comb  points.     Photograph  from  Prof.  F.  S.  Jacoby. 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS        475 


tapering  more  or  less  to  a  smooth  point.     This  comb  occurs 

on  Wyandottes,   Minorcas,  and  other  varieties.     The  pea 

comb  is  very  small,  and  resembles  three  single  combs  dwarfed 

in  size  and  crowded  side  by  side, 

with  the  central  one   somewhat 

larger  than  the  others.    There  are 

also    V-shaped    and    strawberry 

combs,  but  these  are  not  common. 

The  ear  lobes  are  usually  small, 

and  vary  in  color  from  red  to 

white   or    bluish,    according    to 

breed.     The  wattles  are  usually 

red,  and  on  the  cock  often  hang 

below  the  bill  in  a  conspicuous 

manner.     The  bill  does  not  show  the  striking  differences 

seen  in  the  comb  and  wattles.     Some  breeds,  like  the  Houdan 

and  Polish,  have  crests,  or  clusters  of  feathers,  which  some- 
times largely  hide  the 
head  proper  from  view 
and  also  often  affect  the 
sight  of  the  birds. 

The  feathers  of  the 
fowl  differ  in  a  remark- 
able way  in  size,  form, 
and  color.  Even  with 
varieties  of  one  color,  as, 
for  example,  white,  the 
shades  of  this  hue  are 
made  a  subject  of  discus- 
sion by  poultry  experts. 
This  difference  also  ap- 
plies to  other  solid  colors. 
In  case  of  fowls  having 

more  than  one  color-marking  to  the  feather,  there  are  barred 

feathers,  as  with  the  Plymouth  Rock;  penciled  feathers,  as 


Figure  230. — Outstretched  wing  showing 
barred  feathers  of  the  Plymouth  Rock. 
Photograph  from  Prof.  F.  S.  Jacoby. 


476  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

with  the  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte;  laced  feathers,  as  with 
the  Golden  Wyandotte;  and  still  other  markings,  as  striped, 
spangled,  edged,  etc.  The  color-markings  of  some  birds  are 
very  beautiful.  The  correct  color  and  form  of  the  feather 
are  of  most  interest  to  the  fancier;  yet  the  practical  poultry- 
man  little  interested  in  this  feature  has  been  able  to  secure 
his  favorite  breed  through  patient  breeding,  development, 
and  improvement  by  the  so-called  fancier. 

Methods  of  judging.  The  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls 
are  ordinarily  judged  by  one  of  two  methods,  the  score  card 
or  by  comparison.  In  recent  years  utility  classes  have  been 
exhibited  at  poultry  shows,  and  this  fact  has  introduced 
another  phase  of  judging  where  egg  production  is  an  import- 
tant  factor.  The  score-card  method  of  judging  has  been 
generally  used  at  poultry  shows  for  many  years.  Its  use, 
however,  is  not  so  common  now  as  formerly.  Poultry  judges 
using  the  score  card  put  down  the  number  of  points  or  frac- 
tion of  a  point  cut,  and  adding  these,  deduct  from  100,  which 
gives  the  total  score.  In  cutting  for  defects  from  J/£  to  3 
points  are  recommended  for  certain  deficiencies,  and  these 
are  specified  in  the  standard  for  the  benefit  of  official  judges. 
Judging  by  comparison  is  becoming  common,  and  is  more 
satisfactory  than  by  score  card,  for  the  reasons  already  given 
in  Chapter  XIII. 

Instructions  for  judges  of  poultry  include  various  points. 
Among  these,  weight  receives  considerable  attention,  and 
two  points  are  usually  deducted  for  each  pound  that  the  fowl 
falls  short  of  the  standard  weight.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  one  nearest  standard  weight  is  awarded  the  prize.  To 
receive  a  first  prize,  a  specimen  must  score  90  or  more  points, 
except  cocks  in  parti-colored  varieties,  which  are  allowed  88 
points  as  a  minimum.  When  young  and  old  birds  are  in 
competition,  other  things  being  equal,  the  older  ones  are  to 
be  awarded  the  prizes.  Ties  often  result  in  judging:  When 
a  tie  occurs,  if  it  can  not  be  broken  by  other  rules,  then  the 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS        477 


specimen  receiving  the  smallest  total  sum  of  cuts  for  shape 
shall  be  awarded  the  prize. 

The  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry  Associ- 
ation is  here  given : 


(Name  of  association  here) 


(Date,  month,  days  and  year  show  is  held) 
OFFICIAL  SCORE  CARD  OF  THE  AMERICAN  POULTRY  ASSOCIATION 

EXHIBITOR 

VARIETY Sex 

ENTRY  No .  .  . .  BAND  No . .  . .  WEIGHT  .  . 


Symmetry 

Weight  or  size 

Condition 

Comb 

Head 

Beak 

Eyes 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes .  . 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail 

Breast 

Body  and  fluff 

Legs  and  toes 

fCrest  and  beard 

*Shortness  of  feather. . 


Shape 


Color 


Remarks. 


Total  cuts.  .  .  .Score. 


.JUDGE 
.SECRETARY 


fApplies  to  crested  breeds.       *Applies  to  games  and  game  bantams. 

This  score  card  is  intended  for  use  in  connection  with  the 
Standard  of  Perfection,  which  contains  a  detailed  description 
of  each  variety  of  fowl. 


478  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Disqualification  in  judging  poultry  is  allowed  for  various 
reasons.  The  occurrence  of  feathers  on  the  legs  of  what 
should  be  a  smooth-legged  breed;  or  of  smooth  legs  when 
feathers  should  occur;  irregular  color  of  ear  lobes  and  legs 
or  of  the  plumage;  web  feet  and  excessive  number  of  toes 
or  too  few  toes;  incorrect  position  of  the  comb,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, lopping  when  it  should  be  erect;  absence  of  crest 
in  crested  varieties  are  examples  of  conditions  which  jus- 
tify disqualification. 

Judging  fowls  for  utility  has  received  special  attention 
at  poultry  shows  since  about  1915.  In  the  utility  classes 
the  birds  are  to  be  brought  forward  for  show  when  at  the 
height  of  egg  production.  This  practice  is  not  the  case  with 
ordinary  exhibition  birds,  for  they  are  shown  just  prior  to 
beginning  production,  when  in  their  finest  plumage.  Only 
standard-bred  fowls  are  shown  in  each  class,  but  in  the 
utility  group  less  consideration  is  given  to  plumage  and 
more  emphasis  is  paid  to  body  form  and  evidence  of  egg 
production.  A  score  card  for  utility  judging  was  drawn  up 
in  November,  1919,  at  a  conference  of  poultry  specialists  at 
Vineland,  New  Jersey,  based  on  a  careful  study  of  1,000 
yearling  hens  in  the  International  Egg-Laying  Contest. 

"In  working  out  a  production  score  card,"  writes  Professor  Harry  R. 
Lewis*,  the  idea  has  not  been  to  develop  a  score  card  which  should  be 
used  in  placing  premiums  at  utility  shows,  but  rather  to  develop  numeri- 
cal values  for  the  various  sections  of  the  bird,  in  order  that  utility  judges 
and  exhibitors  may  have  a  common  working  basis,  that  is,  in  order  that 
the  exhibitor  in  picking  his  birds  may  have  a  more  or  less  accurate  idea 
of  what  the  judge  is  going  to  look  for  in  determining  the  relative  values 
which  he  will  give  the  various  sections  and  qualities.  In  working  out 
the  numerical  values  for  the  score  card  the  perfect  bird  was  recognized  as 
100  per  cent,  which  was  allowed  to  be  equivalent  to  a  production  of  300 
eggs.  Numerical  values  for  all  sections  were  then  so  arranged  that  each 
per  cent  of  value  is  equivalent  to  three  eggs  or,  put  differently,  a  cut  of 
one  point  in  any  one  section  is  equivalent  to  a  cut  of  three  eggs." 

The  following  score  card  for  utility  judging  is  based  in 
principle  on  much  of  the  work  developed  at  the  Cornell 
University  judging  school  during  1918  and  1919. 

*Judging   fowls   for  egg  production,    Hints  to  Poultrymen — Vol.   8,   No.   2,   New 
Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1919. 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS       479 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  JUDGING  UTILITY  HENS  AND  PULLETS 

Egg  produc- 

Parts  scored  Perfection     tion  value 

Body  type  (as  seen  in  coop  or  on  floor) 25  points  75 


Head  and  adjuncts 15 

Body  conformation  (as  determined  by  handling)    30 

Handling  quality 10 

Legs  and  toes 5 

Condition.  ...  .15 


45 
90 
30 
15 
45 

Total  for  perfection 100  300 

The  following  discussion  is  given  as  explanatory  of  the  application  of 
the  score  card  in  utility  judging. 

BODY  TYPE 

Perfect  Score— 25  Points,  75  Eggs 

A  bird  of  good  body  is  usually  well-balanced  in  that  the  body  itself 
must  be  deep,  showing  a  nearly  rectangular  form,  well  developed  in  breast 
and  abdomen.  Great  depth  of  body  is  especially  desirable,  but  apparent 
depth  must  not  be  due  to  loose  feathering,  which  is  generally  shown  by 
an  evidence  of  loose  thigh  feathers.  Cochin  and  exhibition  game  type 
and  feathering  are  usually  associated  with  poor  production.  Large 
capacity  is  essential  if  a  hen  is  to  lay  long  and  heavily.  Such  capacity  is 
designated  by  a  body  that  is  deeper  at  the  rear  end  of  the  keel  than  at 
the  front  end.  The  underline  should  be  fairly  straight  and  the  back 
should  be  comparatively  horizontal.  Prominent  breast  development, 
with  evidence  of  a  long  keel  are  desirable  qualities  in  a  high-producing 
hen.  The  general  body  conformation  of  a  heavy  producer  conforms 
very  closely  to  a  rectangle  with  pronounced  angles  rather  than  smooth 
curves.  A  male  shows  the  same  general  characteristics  as  a  female  except 
that  the  abdomen  is  not  so  deep. 

A  small-capacity  hen  generally  stands  erect.  The  body  is  either  very 
shallow  and  cut  away  at  the  breast  and  abdomen  or,  in  the  case  of  beefy 
individuals,  the  abdomen  shows  a  pronounced  sagging  at  the  rear  of  the 
keel  due  to  large  accumulations  of  fat.  Extremely  poor  producers 
frequently  show  a  hump  on  the  back. 

HEAD  AND  ADJUNCTS 

Perfect  Score— 15  Points,  45  Eggs 

One  of  the  best  indications  in  picking  high  layers  is  the  fineness  of  the 
head.  The  head  of  the  heavy  producer  is  fine,  showing  a  lean  face,  free 
from  wrinkles  and  overhanging  eyebrows.  The  wattles  and  ear  lobes 
fit  close  to  the  head  and  are  not  loose  and  flabby.  The  face  is  clean  cut, 
the  eye  is  full,  round  and  prominent,  especially  when  seen  from  the  front. 
An  eye  which  gives  a  clean-cut  wide-open  appearane  is  desirable.  The 
eyeball  of  the  heavy  producer  is  generally  set  in  the  rear  of  a  large  oval 
socket,  showing  considerable  of  the  white  eye  membrance  in  front  of  the 
eyeball.  The  head  of  a  heavy  producer  should  be  well  balanced,  being 
moderately  deep  and  broad.  The  extremely  fat,  full  head  of  the  beefy 
bird  and  the  long,  thin  pointed  head  of  the  low-vitality  birds  are  both 
undesirable  and  should  call  for  heavy  cuts  in  this  section.  The  low- 
producing  bird  generally  shows  a  depressed  eye  with  over-hanging 


480  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

eyebrows  and  wrinkled  skin  at  the  back  of  the  eye.  The  extremely 
long  sharp  beak  is  usually  possessed  by  the  low  producer,  while  the 
medium  stout,  well-curved  beak  is  characteristic  of  the  high  producer. 

BODY  CONFORMATION 

Perfect  Score— 30  Points,  90  Eggs 

When  taken  in  the  hands,  a  heavy  producer  will  show,  by  the  sense  of 
touch,  great  depth  of  body,  especially  at  the  front  and  rear  of  the  keel 
bone.  The  keel  must  be  moderately  straight,  relatively  long  and  carried 
well  back.  The  space  between  the  pelvic  bones  and  the  keel  must  be  free 
from  excessive  accumulations  of  fat.  Birds  which  are  laying  heavily 
can  be  readily  detected  by  the  development  of  the  abdomen.  Such  birds 
will  show  pelvic  arches  which  are  widespread  and  a  keel  which  is  forced 
down  away  from  the  pelvic  arches  so  as  to  give  large  capacity. 

The  poor  producer  generally  shows  a  shallow  body  especially  at  the 
front  of  the  keel,  a  small  shrunken  abdomen,  together  with  all  evidences 
of  small  capacity. 

HANDLING  QUALITY 

Perfect  Score— 10  Points,  30  Eggs 

The  skin  of  the  heavy-producing  hen  is  thin,  soft  and  pliable,  es- 
pecially the  skin  on  the  abdomen  must  be  thin  and  loose.  The  skin  of 
the  poor  producer  is  generally  thick,  hard  and  rather  coarse  to  the  touch. 
The  thin  velvety  skin  is  almost  always  associated  with  heavy  ovarian 
activity. 

LEGS  AND  TOES 

Perfect  Score— 5  Points,  15  Eggs 

The  shanks  of  a  heavy  producer  are  flat,  pliable  and  smooth  scaled. 
In  hens  at  the  end  of  their  laying  year,  or  pullets  which  have  been  laying 
heavily  for  some  time,  the  shanks  will  be  bleached  out.  The  toes  should 
be  straight  and  the  toenails  show  indication  of  proper  activity.  The 
shanks  of  the  poor  producer  are  usually  round,  hard  and  rather  coarse 
scaled. 

CONDITION 
[Perfect  Score— 15  Points,  45  Eggs 

A  bird  to  be  capable  of  highest  sustained  production  must  be  first  of 
all  healthy.  She  must  show  vigor  and  activity  and  be  well  fleshed.  Late 
molting  in  hens  is  desirable.  Early  molting  and  slow  maturing,  as 
shown  by  the  primary  feathers,  should  be  cut  severely.  Late  developing 
and  late  maturing  usually  indicate  low  production.  In  applying  this 
section  to  hens,  health  and  molting  conditions  should  be  given  primary 
consideration.  In  applying  this  section  to  pullets  health  and  maturity 
should  be  given  primary  consideration. 

Judging  poultry  products,  such  as  dressed  poultry  and 
eggs,  is  becoming  more  and  more  necessary.  The  score  card 
is  not  specially  recommended  for  this  purpose,  the  compara- 
tive method  being  very  generally  regarded  as  the  most  sat- 
isfactory. Referring  to  this  point,  one  authority  says : 


JUDGING  POULTRY  AND  POULTRY  PRODUCTS        481 


"In  judging  dressed  poultry  and  eggs,  the  number  of  qualities  or 
points  to  be  considered  is  small;  slight  differences  in  quality  do  not  make 
great  differences  in  value,  as  in  high-class  birds,  and  degrees  of  quality 
are  more  readily  appreciated.  While  score  cards  are  sometimes  used  for 
judging  dressed  poultry  and  eggs,  the  number  of  sections  into  which  a 
card  may  appropriately  be  divided  is  so  small  that  there  is  little  if  any 
advantage  in  scoring,  and  if,  to  develop  a  system  of  scoring,  many  sec- 
tions are  made,  the  process  of  judging  is  complicated  when  it  should 
remain  simple.  The  points  to  be  considered  are  so  few,  and  the  values  so 
apparent,  that  judgment  of  all  is  practically  instantaneous.  *  *  * 
The  rational  method  of  judging  dressed  poultry  and  eggs  is  to  grade 
them  according  to  market  quality  and  value." 

The  judging  of  eggs  by  score  card  has  been  attempted  to 
some  extent.  An  egg  show,  in  which  eggs  were  scored  by 
the  students,  has  been  held  annually  at  Purdue  University. 
Two  classes  of  eggs  were  provided,  "fancy"  and  "commer- 
cial." The  following  score  card  and  explanation  of  its  use 
are  well  worth  consideration: 


COMMERCIAL  EGG  SCORE  CARD. 

EXHIBITOR  . .  . .  DATE  . . 


192. 


ADDRESS 
ENTRY  No .  . 


.  .  CLASS  . 


.  COLOR 

.WEIGHT.  .  .  .Ozs. 


Features  considered 

Perfec- 
tion 

Cuts 

Remarks 

Size    .  . 

25 

Shape  

4 

Uniformity  of  color.  .    .  . 

8 

Uniformity  of  size  and  shape 

5 

Shell  texture  

4 

Condition  of  shells  

4 

Quality  (by  testing) 
(a)  Size  air  cell  .... 

25 

(b)  Opaqueness  

25 

Total  points  

100 

JUDGE 

SECRETARY. 

Explanation  of  Commercial  Egg  Score  Card 

Size:  Extras,  26  to  28  ounces.  Firsts,  24  to  26  ounces. 
One  point  cut  for  each  ounce  over  or  under  required  weight 
in  either  class. 

16 


482  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Shape:     %  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 
Uniformity  of  color:     If  white,  eggs  should  be  all  pure 
white  and  of  the  same  shade.     If  brown,  the  color  may  be 
any  shade,  but  the  dozen  should  be  uniformly  the  same 
color;  %  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 

Uniformity  of  size  and  shape:    All  eggs  must  be  of  same 
size  and  shape.     }/%  point  allowed  for  each  egg. 

Shell  texture:  Free  from  wrinkles,  spots,  cracks,  and 
rough  places;  H  point  for  each  egg. 

Condition  of  shell:     Free  from  dirt  or  stain,  unwashed. 

Quality:  Test  with  candles,  (a)  Air  cell  very  small, 
about  size  of  a  dime,  indicating  freshness,  (b)  Egg  must 
appear  opaque,  the  yolk  free  from  dark  color,  white  thick, 
yolk  barely  visible.  Large  air  cell,  floating  yolks  or  air  cells 
are  defects.  Eggs  must  be  fresh  and  sweet. 

Disqualifications:  Cracked,  broken,  spots,  musty  rots, 
and  germs  or  blood  rings  in  any  one  egg  will  disqualify  the 
dozen. 

COULD  YOU  TELL 

1.  The  purpose  and  value  of  the  Standard  of  Perfection? 

2.  How  the  combs  of  fowls  differ  in  form? 

3.  In  what  way  feathers  differ  in  coloring? 

4.  The  method  of  making  cuts  in  scoring  poultry? 

5.  How  weight  and  size  are  graded  by  the  judge? 

6.  Two  conditions  that  might  cause  disqualifications? 

7.  The  difference  between  utility  and  ordinary  exhibition  classes? 

8.  On  what  basis  the  utility  score  card  is  constructed? 

9.  Some  of  the  features  of  a  perfect  head  in  the  utility  score? 

10.  Why  the  commercial  score  card  is  not  more  used  in  judging  poul- 

try products? 

EASY  THINGS  TO  DO 

11.  Holding  Saturday  afternoon  poultry  judging  contests. 

12.  Collecting  an  exhibit  of  one  breed  for  comparison  at  school. 

13.  Scoring  a  number  of  hens  in  the  utility  class. 

14.  Getting  up  a  prize  egg  show,  and  judging  by  score  card. 

15.  Sorting  over  and    studying  a   case   of  eggs  loaned  by  the  egg 

dealer  or  grocer. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
CULLING  THE  POULTRY  FLOCK 

The  relationship  of  form  to  function  with  fowls  has  re- 
ceived a  great  deal  of  attention  in  recent  years.  Careful 
study  of  egg  production  by  individual  fowls,  as  explained  in 
chapter  XL,  demonstrates  that  the  most  productive  layers 
possess  certain  characteristics  which  are  associated  with  the 


4   .^i     /      r*> 
**•/.      ••:,{   ^;/> 

£itt#*     • 


Figure  231. — A  culling  demonstration  by  Prof.  E.  L.  Dakan  on  an  Ohio  farm. 
Photograph  from  Ohio  State   University. 

laying  habit.  If  one  seeks  egg  production  in  a  flock,  it 
is  very  important  to  make  practical  application  of  this 
knowledge  and  cull  out  all  birds  that  do  not  measure  up  to 
the  desired  standard  or  that  are  lacking  in  vitality.  So 
important  has  this  subject  of  culling  out  the  undesirables 
become,  that  demonstrations  on  this  subject  have  been  held 
in  many  communities  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons  have 

4S3 


484  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

profited  thereby.  In  1921  nearly  all  the  88  counties  of  Ohio 
had  special  culling  demonstrations,  50,000  persons  being  in  at- 
tendance. During  the  month  of  July  599  demonstrations  were 
held  in  32  counties,  and  64,651  hens  were  handled,  23  per 
cent  of  which  were  culls.  It  was  estimated  by  the  Poultry 
Department  of  the  Ohio  State  University  that  these  culls 
that  were  removed  from  the  flock,  resulted  in  a  saving  of 
$11,766  to  the  flock  owners.  This  Ohio  experience  is  simply 
given  as  an  example  of  the  importance  of  this  work.  The 
following  instructions  for  culling  the  flock,  are  based  upon 
an  excellent  bulletin*  prepared  by  Professor  E.  L.  Dakan,  a 
poultry  specialist  who  has  devoted  much  attention  to  this 
subject. 

Indications  of  egg-producing  capacity  may  be  sought  in 
several  directions.  In  general  these  indications  are  shown 
in  three  ways: 

1.  In  color  changes  due  to  egg  production. 

2.  In  body  changes  in  fat  and  pelvic  bones. 

3.  The  period  of  molting. 

A  discussion  of  the  above  indications  involves  a  number 
of  special  features  which  must  be  considered  by  themselves. 

COLOR  CHANGES  IN  HENS  DUE  TO.EGG  PRODUCTION 

A  yellow  pigment  is  more  or  less  present  in  the  hen, 
according  to  conditions.  When  not  producing  eggs,  the 
hen  lays  up  body  fat.  In  the  case  of  yellow-skinned  fowls, 
this  fat  contains  a  yellow  pigment  which  colors  not  only  the 
body  fat  and  skin,  but  also  the  legs,  beak,  eye  ring,  and  to 
some  extent  the  ear  lobe.  As  soon  as  a  hen  begins  to  pro- 
duce eggs,  this  yellow  pigment  fades  from  the  body  and 
intensifies  in  the  yolk  of  the  egg.  So  long  as  a  hen  produces 
eggs  the  pigment  is  diverted  to  the  yolk,  none  being  deposited 
in  the  body,  which  is  now  bluish-white  or  pink  in  color. 
When  laying  is  discontinued,  the  body  once  more  takes  on 
the  yellow  color.  This  process  of  fading  follows  a  certain 

*Culling  the   poultry   flock.      By  E.    L.    Dakan,    Bulletin   13.  vol.   XV,   1919-20, 
Agricultural  Extension  Service,  Ohio  State  University 


CULLING   THE  POULTRY  FLOCK  485 

well  defined  course,  always  in  the  following  order:  first,  the 
vent;  second,  the  eye  rings;  third,  the  beak;  and  last,  the 
shanks.  The  kind  of  feed  used  affects  the  length  of  the 
fading  period  in  the  hen,  because  the  yellow  pigment  is 
derived  from  the  grain  and  green  feed  that  the  hen  eats. 
The  fowl  that  has  had  yellow  corn  and  plenty  of  green  feed 
has  a  larger  supply  of  yellow  pigment  stored  in  her  body 
than  the  one  fed  on  white  corn  with  no  green  feed.  Further, 
the  greater  the  amount  of  yellow  pigment  stored  up  in  the 
body,  the  longer  the  time  required  for  the  fowl  to  undergo 
the  bleaching  process.  With  these  facts  in  mind  it  is  possi- 
ble to  select  the  hen  that  has  been  the  continuous,  consistent 
layer,  as  well  as  to  determine  those  which  have  just  begun 
to  lay  or  have  been  poor  layers. 

COLOR  MARKS 

The  vent  is  the  first  part  to  lose  the  yellow  color  after 
egg  production  starts.  This  change  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
those  parts  of  the  body  where  the  blood  circulation  is  great- 
est fade  first.  A  white  or  pink  vent  of  a  yellow-skinned  bird 
indicates  that  she  is  laying. 

The  eye  rings,  which  are  in  the  inner  edge  of  the  eye- 
lids, bleach  out  a  little  more  slowly  than  the  vent  and,  there- 
fore, bleached  or  white  eye  rings  indicate  a  longer  produc- 
tion than  a  bleached  vent. 

The  ear  lobes  on  the  white-lobed  varieties  bleach  next 
and  indicate  a  still  longer  period  of  production  than  a  white 
vent  and  white  eye  rings. 

The  color  of  the  beak  is  lost  before  that  of  the  shanks 
and  thus  a  white  beak  indicates  that  the  hen  has  been 
producing  eggs  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  The  color  leaves 
the  beak,  beginning  at  its  base,  and  gradually  disappears, 
leaving  the  front  part  of  the  upper  beak  last.  The  lower  beak 
bleaches  faster  than  the  upper.  The  lower  beak  should  be 
used  for  oberservation  when  the  upper  is  covered  with  black 
or  horn,  as  with  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Rhode  Island  Reds. 


486 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


The  shank  color  is  the  last  to  be  affected,  the  yellow 
remaining  in  this  part  after  it  has  disappeared  elsewhere. 
For  this  reason  we  have  here  the  surest  indication  of  long 
continued  production.  It  requires  from  four  to  five  months 
for  the  shanks  to  bleach  out  after  the  hen  begins  to  produce 
eggs.  The  color  leaves  the  front  of  the  shanks  first  and 
gradually  fades  from  the  scales  on  the  back  side  as  the  length 
of  the  laying  period  increases. 


Figure  232. — Rear  view  showing  large  vent  and  egg  laying  form  on  left,  and 
small  vent  and  meat  form  on  right.     Photograph  from  Dr.  O.  B.  Kent. 

BODY  CHANGES  DUE  TO  EGG  PRODUCTION 
The  following  discussion  of  body  changes  is  in  the  order 
that  is  usually  followed  in  culling  demonstrations. 

The  vent  of  a  laying  hen  is  large,  as  is  shown  in  figure 
232,  and  it  is  also  open,  moist,  and  soft,  while  that  of  a  non- 
laying  fowl  is  small,  close,  dry,  and  puckered. 


CULLING   THE  POULTRY  FLOCK 


487 


The  comb  of  a  laying  hen  is  large,  full,  and  bright  in 
color,  while  the  comb  of  a  non-laying  one  is  dry  and  com- 
paratively hard,  often  covered  with  scale,  and  is  pale  in  color. 

The  abdomen  of  a  laying  fowl  has  a  fat  covering  that  is 
soft  and  pliable,  and  feels  much  like  an  udder  that  has  been 
partly  milked.  The  skin  is  also  soft  and  velvety.  The 
abdomen  of  a  non-laying  hen  is  dry  and  hard. 

The  pelvic,  or  pin,  bones  of  a  laying  hen  are  straight 
and  flexible,  with 
very  little  or  no 
fat  around  them. 
They  are  spread 
far  enough  to 
permit  the  pass- 
age of  the  egg. 
The  spread  var- 
ies with  the  in- 
dividual and  the 
breed,  and  no 
definite  measure- 
ment applies  in 
this  regard.  In 
general,  how- 
ever, a  laying 
hen  will  show  a 
spread  between 
the  pin  bones  of 
at  least  three 
fingers.  Practice  is  necessary  to  determine  just  what  spread 
indicates  that  the  hen  is  laying,  keeping  in  mind  the  fact 
that  a  hen  that  is  laying  will  show  a  greater  spread  of  pin 
bones  than  one  not  laying,  and  that  the  bones  of  a  non-laying 
hen  are  thick,  stiff,  and  blunt,  with  the  ends  bent  in. 

The  distance  from  the  pelvic  to  keel  bones  of  a  laying 
hen  is  an  important  indication.  A  laying  hen  consumes 


Figure  233. — A  culling  demonstration.  Body  depth  is 
a  measure  of  a  hen's  capacity  to  consume  a  large 
quantity  of  food  and  consequently  produce  a  large 
number  of  eggs.  The  one  on  the  left  is  a  deep-bodied, 
high  producer,  the  one  on  the  right  a  shallow,  round 
bodied  scrub.  Photograph  from  Prof.  E.  L.  Dakan. 


488  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

more  food  than  one  that  is  not  laying.  A  high  egg-producer 
consumes  more  feed  than  a  poor  egg-producer.  In  order  to 
consume  and  digest  this  feed  the  intestines  of  a  laying  hen 
are  larger  than  of  one  not  laying.  When  laying,  the  ovary 
and  oviduct  are  greatly  enlarged  and  require  more  room. 
To  provide  this  extra  space,  the  body  increases  in  capacity 
or  depth.  This  is  noticeable  by  the  increase  in  the  distance 
from  the  pin  bones  to  the  end  of  the  keel  bone.  The  increase 
in  size  of  the  body  cavity  is  secured  by  the  dropping  down 
of  the  keel  bone.  By  measuring  the  distance  from  the  pin 
bones  to  the  keel  bone  an  idea  can  be  formed  as  to  whether 
the  hen  is  in  laying  condition  or  not.  No  definite  measure- 
ment can  be  given  that  will  fit  all  individual  hens.  As  a 
general  rule,  a  hen  that  measures  less  than  three  fingers  wide 
of  body  depth,  is  not  laying  or  is  a  poor  layer,  because  such 
a  hen  lacks  the  capacity  for  handling  a  large  amount  of  feed. 
The  hen  that  shows  the  greater  body  depth  may,  as  a  rule, 
be  selected  as  a  good  layer  if  in  addition  to  this  she  exhibits 
the  other  marks  of  egg  production. 

THE  MOLT  INFLUENCE  ON  EGG  PRODUCTION 
Most  hens  stop  laying  when  they  begin  to  molt.  Since 
the  molting  period  covers  several  weeks,  it  is  advisable  to 
sell  the  hens  that  molt  early.  It  is  a  fact  no  longer  disputed, 
that  a  hen,  in  order  to  make  a  high  yearly  record,  must  be 
a  consistent  layer.  The  early  molting  hen  is  not  a  consist- 
ent layer.  She  takes  all  the  fall  months  as  a  vacation  for 
changing  her  plumage.  The  consistent  layer  molts  late  and 
grows  her  new  plumage  rapidly.  The  time  of  the  molt  is 
the  best  indication  of  the  last  year's  performance.  The 
molting  period  may  be  a  guide  in  culling  all  breeds  and 
varieties,  but  is  of  special  importance  with  such  breeds  as 
the  Orpingtons  and  Minorcas  that  do  not  have  the  yellow 
skin.  The  hen  that  molts  early,  under  normal  conditions, 
will  not  lay  as  many  winter  eggs  as  the  one  that  molts  late. 
Neither  will  the  early-molting  fowl  begin  egg  production 


CULLING   THE   POULTRY  FLOCK 


489 


earlier  in  the  spring  than  the  late-molting  one.  No  definite 
date  can  be  set  as  to  early  molting.  As  a  general  rule,  how- 
ever, the  first  hens  in  the  flock  to  molt  should  be  sold,  and 
the  last  to  molt  should  be  retained  for  breeding  purposes. 
Hens  may  be  caused  to  molt  early  if  placed  on  starvation 
diet  while  laying  heavily;  by  irregular  feeding;  by  roosting 
in  a  house  that  is  poorly  ventilated,  or  in  any  way  that  tends 
to  check  egg  production  suddenly.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  let  these  undesirable  conditions  occur,  otherwise  a 
lower  total  egg  production  is  quite  likely  to  follow.  If  the 
pullets  are  hatched  early, 
they  will  be  laying  early 
in  the  autumn,  and  thus 
egg  production  will  be 
kept  up.  In  an  article 
on  culling,*  Professor  H. 
C.  Knandel  of  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College 
touches  still  another  side 
to  the  plumage  question.  "*r 

He  says  that  during  the 
fall  months  the  condition 
of  the  plumage  is  the 
most  noticeable  indica- 
tion of  production  that 
applies  to  all  breeds.  The 
hen  whose  plumage  ap- 
pears most  soiled,  whose  tail  and  wing  feathers  are  badly  worn, 
is  the  hen  that  has  been  laying  heavily.  The  early-molting 
hen  during  the  late  fall  months  appears  very  much  dressed 
up  in  her  new  suit,  but  has  not  produced  a  quantity  of  eggs 
sufficient  to  pay  her  board  bill.  Hence  the  hen  that  is  the 
good  producer  is  too  busy  laying  eggs  to  stop  to  molt,  with 
the  result  that  she  does  not  shed  her  feathers  and  get  ready 
to  engage  in  egg  production  until  late  in  the  year. 

*The  Truth  about  Culling.     National  Stockman  and  Farmer,  Sept.  3,  1921. 


Figure  234. — A  hen  in  heavy  moulting  con- 
dition. Photograph  from  Prof.  F.  S. 
Jacoby. 


490  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

IN  CULLING  THE  FLOCK  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

1.  Why  be  influenced  in  your  judgment  by  skin  pigment? 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  green  food  on  the  egg? 

3.  Should  the  vent  be  yellow  or  white?   large  or  small? 

4.  How  would  you  value  the  color  of  the  beak? 

5.  What  kind  of  a  comb  would  you  seek? 

6.  How  should  the  fat  covering  on  the  abdomen  feel? 

7.  Should  the  pin  bones  be  spread  or  close? 

8.  What  should  be  the  distance  from  the  pin  bones  to  the  keel? 

9.  Would  you  select  an  early  or  late  molting  hen?     Why? 

10.  What  hens  should  be  sold  first? 

DO  A  LITTLE  CULLING  YOURSELF 

11.  Compare  the  general  forms  of  birds  you  know  to  be  good  layers 

with  those  that  are  not. 

12.  Feed  two  hens  of  the  same  breed,  one  corn,  the  other  wheat,  and 

notice  the  effect  in  pigment  coloring. 

13.  Compare  the  eye  rings,  ear  lobes  and  beak  color  of  ten  hens,  of  the 

same  breed. 

14.  Examine  the  combs  of  laying  and  non-laying  hens  and  note  the 

difference. 

15.  Select  two  groups  of  fowls,  one  molting,  one  in  full  plumage,  and 

measure  the  distance  between  pin  bones  and  keel  in  each  group. 


CHAPTER  XLII 
EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 

The  egg  is  an  object  of  much  interest,  for  it  is  not  only 
the  source  of  the  chicken  itself,  but  also  a  most  important 
source  of  income  to  the  poultryman.  If  one  is  to  handle 
the  egg  intelligently,  one  must  know  something  of  its  com- 
position, of  how  the  chick  is  developed  within  the  shell,  and 
of  commercial  differences  and  values. 

The  parts  of  the  egg  of  special  interest  are  five: 

The  shell,  composed  mostly  of  lime,  and  hard  enough  to 
enclose  and  protect  the  softer  interior. 

Two  tough  membranes  lying  next  within  the  shell.  These 
separate  at  the  large  end,  forming  a  small  air  sac,  which  is 
easily  seen  in  hard-boiled  eggs. 

The  albumen,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  white  of 
the  egg.  This  forms  about  57  per  cent  of  the  egg  and  con- 
sists of  much  nitrogenous  matter  of  a  liquid,  sticky,  trans- 
parent character..  Boiling  hardens,  or  coagulates,  the  white 
into  a  firm,  white  structure. 

The  yolk,  comprising  about  33  per  cent  of  the  egg,  is  a 
round  yellow  sac,  surrounded  by  the  white.  This  is  used 
for  nourishing  the  young  chick  just  before  and  after  leaving 
the  shell.  The  yolk  is  suspended  midway  in  the  white  and 
kept  in  proper  position  by  two  albuminous  cords. 

The  blastoderm  in  the  fresh-laid  egg  is  seen  as  a  white 
speck  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  yolk.  The  blastoderm  is  the  true  egg  and 
source  of  the  chick  in  incubation. 

The  fertile  egg  is  one  that  will  produce  a  chick  under 
proper  conditions  of  what  is  called  incubation.  The  infertile 
or  sterile  egg  can  not  be  hatched,  and  so  has  no  value  in 

491 


492  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

reproduction,  although  for  food  it  has  equal  value  with  the 
fertile  one.  The  fertility  of  the  egg  can  not  be  determined 
except  by  incubation.  After  the  egg  has  been  under  the 
hen  for  five  to  seven  days,  ordinarily  one  may  easily  tell 
whether  it  is  fertile  or  infertile.  If  infertile,  it  will  appear 
clear  and  show  none  of  the  changes  subsequently  described. 
The  testing  or  candling  of  eggs  is  a  simple  process  of 
looking  through  the  egg  with  the  aid  of  special  light.  One 


Figure  235. — A  home  made  egg  candler.     Reproduced  from  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.   1040,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

may  take  a  piece  of  common  cardboard,  one  side  of  which  is 
black,  in  which  is  cut  an  oval  hole  not  quite  as  large  as  an 
egg.  If  the  cardboard  is  held  before  a  lighted  lamp  in  a 
dark  room,  blackened  side  towards  one,  and  an  egg  is  held 
in  the  hole,  the  one  that  contains  a  chick  will  appear  dark 
and  opaque  except  at  the  larger  end,  while  a  sterile  egg  will 
be  clear  and  show  light.  In  the  trade,  where  all  eggs  are 
examined  before  a  light,  this  process  is  known  as  candling. 
Black  lamp  chimneys  with  holes  in  them  are  made  for  use 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 


493 


in  a  small  way;  but,  in  the  larger  commercial  trade,  eggs  are 
candled  over  sets  of  electric  lights  arranged  for  this  purpose. 
The  incubation  of  the  egg  of  the  hen  occupies  a  period 
of  21  days.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important 
changes  that  take  place  during  incubation.  During  the  first 
twenty-four  hours  the  blastoderm  enlarges  to  about  a  half 
inch  in  size,  within  which  the  first  stages  of  head  and  some 
other  parts  appear.  During  the  second  day  the  heart  begins 
to  beat  and  the  blood  to  flow.  By  the  end  of  the  third  day 
the  veins  and  arteries  are  considerably  developed,  and  the 
young  chick  turns  on  its  left  side.  On  the  fourth  day  the 
wing  folds,  and  the  folds  forming  the  legs  appear.  The  beak 


Figure  236. — The  egg.  Left  egg  dead  germ;  center,  fertile  egg  on  7th  day; 
right  egg,  infertile.  Reproduced  from  Circular  99  of  the  California 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

begins  to  form  on  the  eighth  day,  and  shows  its  horny  shape 
on  the  twelfth.  The  entire  shell  except  the  air  cell  is  occu- 
pied by  the  chick  by  the  twelfth  day.  The  feathers  appear 
first  on  the  eighth  day,  and  by  the  thirteenth  cover  the  body 
to  the  length  of  one  fourth  inch.  At  this  time  the  nails  of 
the  feet  appear.  On  the  fourteenth  day  the  chick  changes 
its  position  and  extends  lengthwise,  the  beak  reaching  the 
inner  shell  membrane.  The  air  cell  has  been  gradually  in- 
creasing in  size,  and  by  this  time  is  much  larger.  From  now 
on,  the  chick  increases  in  development  to  the  twenty-first 
day.  The  following  interesting  description  of  the  hatching 
process  is  given  by. Professor  Lewis;* 

*  Poultry  Laboratory  Guide,  1910. 


494  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

"When  ready  to  come  out,  the  chick  raises  its  head  and  pierces  the 
inner  shell  membrane,  and  immediately  starts  breathing  the  air  in  the 
chamber,  which  causes  the  pulmonary  circulation  to  become  active  and 
the  embryonic  circulation  to  cease.  The  head  is  next  raised  into  the  air 
chamber,  and  the  chick  deals  blows  upon  the  shell,  which,  when  often 
repeated  in  the  same  place,  result  in  fracturing  it.  This  process  is  re- 
peated until  the  shell  is  broken  around  about  one  third  of  the  way  from 
the  large  end.  The  chick  then  presses  its  head  against  the  large  end 
and  its  feet  against  the  small  end,  and  then  by  pushing  is  able  to  throw 
off  the  shell  lid  and  make  its  exit." 

The  incubator  is  a  box-like  device  containing  a  space  in 
which  eggs  may  be  incubated  by  means  of  artificial  heat. 
The  hatching  of  eggs  by  artificial  incubation  has  been  in 
operation  for  thousands  of  years,  especially  in  Egypt  and 


Figure   237. — A  pair  of   vigorous   day-old    chicks.     Photograph   from    Prof. 
F.  S.  Jacoby. 

China.  There  are  various  designs  of  incubators  made,  rang- 
ing in  size  from  those  which  contain  but  a  few  eggs  up  to 
those  with  a  capacity  for  thousands.  Incubators  in  use  at 
the  present  time  are  heated  by  hot  air  from  a  kerosene 
lamp  or  by  a  hot-water  system.  The  hot-air  type  is  the  one 
in  more  common  use.  The  eggs,  one  layer  deep,  are  placed 
in  movable,  wire-bottomed  trays.  The  temperature  of  the 
incubator  is  regulated  by  the  automatic  action  of  an  instru- 
ment called  a  thermostat,  which  is  sensitive  to  heat  changes. 
This  instrument  is  set  so  as  to  reduce  or  increase  automatic- 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 


495 


ally  the  amount  of  incoming  pure  air.    A  thermometer 
within  may  be  read  through  the  glass  front.     Incubators 

should  stand  level,  and  a  popular 
location  in  which  to  operate  them 
is  a  dry  cellar  that  will  maintain 
a  uniform  temperature. 

The  artificial  process  of  incu- 
bation in  the  incubator  requires 
one  to  look  carefully  after  the 
following  features  of  importance. 
These  are  location,  temperature, 
ventilation,  and  moisture,  and 


from  Ohio  State   University.        following  disCUSSion  of  these    fact- 

ors  is  abstracted  from  writings  by  Professor  F.S.  Jacoby,head 
of  the  Poultry  Department  at  the  Ohio  State  University.* 

The  location  of  the  incubator  may  have  a  decided  influ- 
ence upon  the  number  of  chicks  hatched.  Heretofore  the 
usual  recommendation  has  been  to  locate  the  incubator  in 
a  cellar  that  maintains  a  more  or  less  uniform  temperature. 
With  the  improvement  of  the  mechanical  parts  of  the  incu- 
bator, this  reason  for  location  is  not  so  important  as  it  used 
to  be.  The  important  point  is  pure  air.  The  room,  whether 
a  cellar  or  not,  should  be  so  arranged  that  both  the  heavy 
gases  near  the  floor  and  the  light  odors  near  the  ceiling  have 
a  means  of  being  dispelled.  If  the  air  in  the  room  is  impure, 
the  air  in  the  incubator  will  be  even  more  so.  The  uni- 
formity of  temperature  in  a  cellar  is  a  decided  help  in  the 
operation  of  the  incubator,  but  it  is  better  to  have  a  room 
with  a  variable  temperature,  if  the  air  is  purer  thereby.  The 
most  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  in  a  room  having  a 
cement  or  dirt  floor,  with  a  temperature  of  60°  to  70°  F. 

Temperature.  The  normal  incubation  temperature  of 
hen  eggs  is  103°  F.  The  position  of  the  thermometer  will 

*Artificial  Incubation  of  Chickens,  Bulletin    16,   Vol.    XV,    Agricultural  Extension 
Service,  Ohio  State  University. 


496  A   STUDY   OF  FARM   ANIMALS 

determine  the  temperature  at  which  the  incubator  should 
be  operated.  The  thermometer  may  be  arranged  so  that 
the  bulb  is  in  contact  with  the  eggs  or  it  may  be  hung  above 
the  eggs  so  that  the  bulb  does  not  touch  the  top  of  the  eggs. 
These  two  methods  would  each  require  a  different  reading 
to  produce  the  correct  temperature  of  the  contents  of  the 
egg.  When  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  is  in  contact  with 
one  or  two  eggs  and  is  on  a  level  with  the  upper  one  fourth 
of  the  egg,  the  temperature  should  be  102°  the  first  week, 
103°  the  second  week,  and  104°  the  third  week.  If  the 
thermometer  is  hung  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  rests  on 
the  top  of  the  egg,  the  readings  should  be  103°  the  first  week, 
104°  the  second  week,  and  104^°  the  third  week.  With 
the  thermometer  suspended  just  above  the  eggs  so  that  the 
tray  can  be  removed  without  striking  the  thermometer,  the 
temperature  should  be  103°  the  first  week,  104°  the  second 
week  and  105°  the  third  week. 

The  incubator  thermometer  should  be  tested  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  season  by  comparing  the  readings  with  those 
of  a  certified  standard  thermometer  in  warm  water  at  102°, 
103°,  104°  and  105°  F,  and  careful  note  made  of  all  variations. 

Moisture  and  ventilation  in  the  incubator  are  so  closely 
associated  that  they  can  not  be  considered  separately. 
Nearly  all  incubators  have  some  provision  for  supplying 
moisture  during  incubation.  The  use  of  moisture  permits 
greater  ventilation  during  incubation  without  excessive  evap- 
oration of  the  egg  contents.  The  amount  of  ventilation  will 
have  a  decided  influence  upon  the  quality  and  number  of 
chicks  hatched.  The  greatest  amount  of  oxygen  is  needed 
from  the  7th  to  the  20th  day  of  incubation.  The  air  in  the 
incubator  should  always  smell  sweet.  If  it  has  any  per- 
ceptible odor,  there  is  not  sufficient  ventilation,  and  the  eggs 
will  not  hatch  as  they  should.  The  safest  method  of  supply- 
ing moisture  is  by  means  of  moisture  pans  located  under 
the  egg  trays.  The  question  of  ventilation  is  automatically 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION  497 

cared  for  in  most  incubators.  Openings  in  the  bottom, 
sides,  or  top  permit  fresh  air  to  enter  and  impure  air  to  pass 
out.  If  there  are  openings  in  the  top  of  the  machine,  much 
more  moisture  must  be  supplied  in  the  egg  chamber,  for 
there  will  be  considerable  moisture  carried  out  of  the  machine 
with  the  warm  air.  If  there  are  no  openings  in  the  top  of 
the  incubator,  the  moisture  in  the  eggs  will  be  conserved; 
but,  in  order  to  supply  sufficient  oxygen  to  the  developing 
embryos,  there  must  be  a  system  of  ventilation  that  will 
circulate  the  air  inside  the  incubator  so  that  the  light  odors 
as  well  as  the  heavy  gases  will  be  dispelled  and  replaced  with 
a  certain  amount  of  fresh  air.  As  a  rule,  the  amount  of 
ventilation  should  be  increased  as  the  hatch  progresses. 
Late  hatches  require  more  ventilation  than  the  earlier 
hatches.  The  best  guide  as  to  the  moisture  requirement  is 
the  egg  itself.  About  two  thirds  of  the  egg  content  should 
be  occupied  by  the  embryo  on  the  nineteenth  day.  If  too 
much  moisture  is  supplied  and  too  little  ventilation  allowed, 
the  chicks  will  hatch  with  considerable  irregularity  and  will 
not  dry  off  with  a  soft,  smooth  down.  If  proper  ventilation 
and  moisture  conditions  have  prevailed,  the  chicks  will  hatch 
out  with  uniformity,  with  a  clean,  soft  down. 

Turning  and  airing  the  eggs.  Turning  and  airing  the 
eggs  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  strong,  vigorous 
chicks.  The  hen  on  the  nest  turns  the  eggs  with  her  feet 
several  times  a  day.  Turning  insures  an  even  development 
of  the  embryo  and  prevents  any  parts  from  adhering  to  the 
inside  of  the  shell.  The  necessity  for  turning  is  apparent 
from  the  third  to  the  eighteenth  day  of  incubation;  but,  in 
those  incubators  that  have  automatic  turning  devices  which 
permit  the  eggs  to  be  turned  without  opening  the  machine, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  turn  the  eggs  from  the  second  to  the 
nineteenth  day.  There  is  no  advantage  in  extending  the 
time,  if  the  machine  must  be  opened  and  the  egg  tray  re- 
moved in  order  to  turn  the  eggs.  Airing  the  eggs  is  a  better 


498  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

expression  than  cooling,  because  it  expresses  more  concisely 
the  real  value  that  accompanies  cooling.  It  is  the  fresh 
oxygen  that  the  eggs  draw  in  as  they  cool  that  has  a  strength- 
ening effect  upon  the  embryo.  The  usual  period  for  airing 
is  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighteenth  day.  The  eggs  should  be 
turned  three  times  a  day — morning,  noon,  and  afternoon. 
They  should  be  aired  once  a  day,  preferably  at  noon.  The 
length  of  the  airing  period  will  depend  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo  and  the  temperature  of  the  room  in 
which  the  eggs  are  aired.  It  will  vary  from  two  to  three 
minutes  for  eggs  five  days  incubated  early  in  the  season,  to 
forty-five  minutes  for  eighteen-day  eggs  in  the  late  spring  or 
early  summer.  Turning  by  hand  is  undoubtedly  more  nearly 
perfect  than  any  automatic  egg  turning  device,  and  if  done 
once  a  day  in  addition  to  the  other  turnings  there  will  be  a 
marked  decrease  in  the  number  of  crippled  chicks. 

Care  of  incubator  after  the  hatch.  Remove  all  shells 
and  unhatched  eggs  at  the  end  of  the  twenty-second  day. 
Chicks  hatched  after  the  twenty-second  day  will  be  too  weak 
to  prove  worth  raising. 

The  incubator  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected after  each  hatch.  Certain  communicable  diseases 
may  be  transmitted  to  the  chicks  through  the  medium  of 
bits  of  egg  shell  and  droppings,  unless  the  trays  are  kept  in 
a  sanitary  condition.  Remove  the  trays  and  all  portable 
parts  from  the  interior  of  the  machine.  Scrub  these  as  well 
as  the  inside  of  the  machine  with  hot  soapy  water.  Then 
drain  and  disinfect  everything  with  a  two  per  cent  solution 
of  creolin  or  zenoleum.  Replace  the  trays,  close  the  door 
of  the  incubator,  light  the  lamp,  and  let  the  machine  dry 
out.  The  fumes  from  the  disinfectant  will  penetrate  to  all 
parts  of  the  machine.  If  burlap  is  used  on  the  nursery  tray, 
use  a  clean  burlap  for  each  hatch. 

Eggs  for  incubation  should  be  from  vigorous,  well-mated 
fowls,  and  not  from  what  might  be  called  mongrel  stock. 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 


499 


These  eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  atmosphere  until 
placed  under  the  hen  or  in  the  incubator.  A  place  having 
a  temperature  of  from  50  to  60  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  re- 
garded as  best.  The  eggs  should  be  carefully  handled,  not 
being  severely  shaken  nor  cracked.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mark 
on  each  egg  the  date  laid,  and  no  eggs  over  10  days  old 
should  be  set.  In  making  up  settings,  it  is  desirable  to  use 
those  of  uniform  size,  color,  and  condition.  Hatchings  will 
be  likely  to  be  more  uniform  if 
the  eggs  are  of  much  the  same 
age  and  condition  of  keep  pre- 
vious to  setting. 

The  size  and  weight  of  eggs 
vary  more  than  many  suppose. 
Professor  Lewis  gives*  some 
interesting  figures  about  the 
size  and  weight  of  eggs  of 
different  breeds  of  fowls.  The 
eggs  of  seven  different  breeds 
showed  an  average  large  circum- 
ference of  6.19  inches,  a  small  cir- 
cumference of  5.27  inches,  and  an 
average  weight  of  1  pound,  8.05 
ounces  per  dozen.  The  eggs  from 
the  hens  were  slightly  larger 
and  weighed  a  trifle  more  than 
those  from  the  pullets.  A  dozen 
Plymouth  Rock  eggs  weighed  1 
pound,  11.2  ounces;  the  Leghorns  ranking  second  at 
1  pound,  10.3  ounces.  In  a  bulletin  published  by  the 
Ohio  State  University,  f  it  was  shown  that,  in  sorting 
over  a  case  of  eggs,  a  dozen  of  the  largest  ones  weighed 
30^2  ounces,  the  medium-sized  26J/2  ounces,  and  the 
small  ones  21  %  ounces.  On  this  basis  it  was  figured 

*Poultry  Laboratory  Guide,  1910,  p.  16. 
fThe  Marketing  of  Eggs,  April,  1911,  p.  16. 


Figure  239. — Leghorn  and  Min- 
orca eggs.  Note  the  difference 
in  size  and  weight  per  dozen. 
Ph9tograph  from  Ohio 
University. 


)hio  State 


500 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


that  a  case  of  30  dozens  of  large  eggs  would  weigh  57  pounds, 
3  ounces,  while  the  small  ones  would  weigh  but  40  pounds, 
12  ounces,  an  astonishing  difference.  The  Leghorn  naturally 
produces  small  eggs,  and  the  Minorca  large  ones,  and  figures 
in  the  bulletin  referred  to  give  a  weight  of  22  ounces  for  a 
dozen  of  the  former,  and  27%  ounces  for  the  latter.  The 
fact  is,  that,  for  the  same  price,  a  dozen  large  eggs  furnish 
more  actual  nutriment  than  a  dozen  small  ones. 

The  color  of  the  egg  is  due  to 
a  pigment,  or  coloring  substance 
developed  in  the  shell  during  the 
process  of  formation  in  the  body 
of  the  hen.  The  color  is  either 
white  or  brown.  Leghorn  and 
Minorcas  produce  white  eggs, 
and  Brahmas  and  Plymouth 
Rocks,  brown  ones.  Some  buy- 
ers prefer  the  white  color,  and 
others  the  brown.  Eggs  of  a 
chalk-white  color,  with  a  light 
yellow  yolk,  bring  the  best  prices 
in  New  York  City.  This  prefer- 
ence is  merely  a  matter  of  fancy, 
because  there  is  no  difference  in 
the  food  value.  When  fresh  laid, 
the  egg  has  a  clear  shell  of  a  beautiful  dull  glaze,  but  with 
age  and  handling  it  becomes  somewhat  glossy  or  polished 
and  often  is  soiled. 

The  degree  of  freshness  of  the  egg  has  much  to  do  with 
its  value  on  the  common  market.  Prime  fresh  eggs,  such 
as  producers  supply  to  private  consumers,  bring  the  highest 
price.  In  a  commercial  way,  eggs  are  gathered  from  farmers 
by  hucksters  or  are  sold  to  country  grocers  by  the  produc- 
ers. They  are  placed  in  wooden  cases  holding  30  dozens  and 
are  shipped  to  the  city  dealers,  by  whom  they  are  graded  and 


Figure  240. — A  comparison  of 
clean  with  dirty  eggs.  Photo- 
graph from  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity. 


EGGS  AND  INCUBATION 


501 


then  placed  on  the  market.  Often  the  eggs  are  very  poor, 
especially  during  the  summer  season.  Eggs  from  stolen 
nests,  dirty  nests,  from  held-over 
stock,  etc.,  find  their  way  into 
the  same  case,  and  form  a  motley 
collection.  The  careful  dealer 
sorts  these,  candles  them,  and 
tries  to  grade  them  before  plac- 
ing them  on  the  market. 

The  grades  of  eggs  on  the 
market  differ  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  in  some  places 
more  than  in  others.  Large 
markets  like  New  York  or  Boston 
handle  the  most  grades.  Pro- 
fessor Philips  gives  the  follow- 
ing classification  as  an  ideal 
way  to  grade  eggs:* 


Figure  241.— Sorted  vs.  un- 
sorted  eggs.  Photograph  from 
Ohio  State  University. 


Extras.  Weigh  28-26  ozs.  naturally  and  absolutely  clean;  fresh 
and  sound. 

No.  1.  Weigh  26-24  ozs.,  sound,  fresh,  and  reasonably  clean. 
No.  2.  Shrunken  or  stale,  washed,  small,  stained  and  dirty. 
No.  3.  Checks — cracked,  but  not  leaking. 
No.  4.  Rots.  Incubator  and  decomposed  eggs. 

New  York  quotation  on  eggs  in  November,  1921,  showed  the  follow- 
ing grades  and  prices. 

California  whites-Extra  firsts 70c 

Extra  firsts 58^-60c. 

First  grade  firsts 50-54c. 

Refrigerator  firsts 

Refrigerator  seconds 30c. 

The  preservation  of  eggs  during  low  prices,  to  sell  when 
they  are  high,  is  a  common  practice.  The  egg  easily  spoils 
under  a  hot  sun  or  in  warm  moist  weather.  Germs  of  rot 
develop  rapidly  in  the  egg  at  55  degrees  or  higher,  con- 
sequently it  is  desirable  to  keep  them  below  this  temperature 
until  they  can  be  used.  In  cold  storage,  it  is  preferred  that 
a  temperature  of  34  degrees  be  maintained. 


*Bulletin  No.  102,  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  p.  251. 


502  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  use  of  common  water  glass  (sodium  silicate)   for 

preserving  eggs  is  now  very  generally  recommended.  This  is  a 

liquid  that  sells  at  a  compara- 
tively low  price.  The  preserving 
fluid  is  made  by  thoroughly  mix- 
ing one  quart  of  the  water  glass 
in  nine  quarts  of  water  that  has 
been  boiled  and  cooled.  Stone 
crocks  or  barrels  make  good 

Figure  242.— A  case  of  eggs  receptacles  for  preservation. 
Un£S£h  fr°m  °hi°  State  These  should  be  well  scalded 

before  using,  and  then  kept  in  a 

place  where  the  temperature  does  not  rise  above  60  degrees. 

The  best  eggs  for  preservation  are  those  laid  in  April,  May, 

and  early  June. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Describe  the  different  parts  of  the  egg. 

2.  Explain  the  method  of  testing  eggs. 

3.  Describe  the  stage  of  incubation    on    the    second,  eighth,  and 

twelfth  days. 

4.  Describe  the  methods  by  which  the  chick  gets  out  of  the  egg. 

5.  Why  is  moisture  necessary  during  incubation? 

6.  Describe  the  incubator. 

7.  How  should  the  egg  for  incubation  be  selected  and  cared  for? 

8.  Compare  eggs  for  size  and  weight. 

9.  Describe  Professor  Philips'  ideal  of  market  grades. 

10.  Give  method  for  preservation. 

SOME  THINGS  YOU  MIGHT  DO 

11.  Boil  an  egg  hard  for  three  minutes,  and  when  cold  separate  into 

four  parts — shell,  membrane,  white  and  yolk. 

12.  Test  some  eggs  by  candling,  either  from   an  egg  case  or  from 

those  being  incubated. 

13.  Fill  a  small  incubator  and  keep^a  daily  record  of  its  temperature  for 

21  days. 

14.  Go  to  a  grocery  and  inspect  a  quantity  of  eggs,  and  report  on 

what  you  saw  as  to  size,  shape,  color,  and  condition. 

15.  Find  market  grades  and    quotations    on    eggs    in   at  least   three 

markets.     Make  comparisons. 

16.  Bring  a  sample  dozen  of  your  home  eggs  to  school  for  inspection. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 

The  organs  of  digestion  of  the  fowl  perform  their  work 
and  have  the  same  influence  on  the  food  as  do  the  stomach 
and  intestines  of  animals.  The  form  of  these  organs,  how- 
ever, is  peculiar  to  birds.  They  may  be  briefly  described  as 
follows: 

The  beak,  a  hard,  horny  part  for  breaking,  tearing,  pull- 
ing or  picking  up  food. 

The  mouth  and  tongue,  within  and  back  of  the  beak. 

The  gullet,  a  tube  which  extends  to 

The  crop,  which  lies  in  front  and  at  the  base  of  the  neck. 
Here  the  food  accumulates  and  is  somewhat  softened  by 
digestive  fluids. 

The  stomach,  where  food  from  the  crop  is  mixed  with  the 
gastric  juice. 

The  gizzard,  a  tough  muscular  organ  containing  small 
particles  of  stone.  Here  the  food  is  ground  to  a  pulp,  mixed 
with  digestive  fluid,  and  then  moves  on  to 

The  intestines,  where  the  last  stage  of  digestion  takes 
place. 

The  foods  suitable  for  fowls  vary  widely  in  kind  and 
character.  In  fact,  farm  poultry  will  eat  almost  anything 
that  has  any  nutritive  value.  So  adaptable  are  fowls  to 
local  conditions,  that,  as  a  rule,  they  are  fed  the  cheapest 
and  most  common  foods  grown  in  the  region  in  which  they 
are  kept.  Very  naturally,  in  America  corn  is  most  com- 
monly fed,  with  wheat  or  its  by-products  next  in  favor.  In 
Japan,  rice  is  the  food  generally  used.  The  kind  of  food, 
however,  should  vary  according  to  the  age  and  condition  of 
the  birds,  and  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept.  If  for 

503 


504 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


fattening,  then  a  carbonaceous  food  is  best;  but,  if  for  eggs, 
then  that  of  a  protein  nature  should  be  used.  Protein  foods 
recommended  for  fowls  are  meat  scraps,  fish  meal,  and  milk 
of  various  forms.  The  common  grains  and  cereal  by- 


MOSTRIlr 


MASAI 
PHAPYMX 
TOMQUE 
LOWER  61 


FACECOMB 
LEFT  WATTLE 
'PHAGUS 
OR  GULLET 


CROP 


HE  APT 

LOCATION  OF  KIDNEYS 
OVARY 


GIZZ 


MESENTERY 

CAECA 
OR  BLIND 
IfiTKTIMES 


Figure  243. — Anatomical  chart  of  a  fowl.     Reproduced  from  Poultry  Manual 
of  the  G.  E.  Conkey  Co.,  Cleveland. 

products,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  bran,  middlings,  etc., 
supply  the  necessary  carbohydrates. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  505 

The  appetite  of  fowls  for  different  kinds  of  food  is  well 
worth  observing.  They  eat  grain  or  concentrated  feed  with 
great  relish,  and  when  in  confinement  this  is  the  kind  most 
used  at  regular  feeding  times.  They  are  extremely  fond  of 
meat,  table  scraps,  tender  herbs  and  grass,  and  of  insects, 
worms,  etc.  In  fact,  no  one  class  of  food  seems  most  relished, 
and  poultrymen  generally  agree  that  variety  in  the  diet 
usually  gives  the  best  results,  from  both  the  health  and  the 
producing  point  of  view. 

The  special  preparation  of  feed  for  fowls  naturally  de- 
pends upon  conditions.  Small  particles  are  usually  prefer- 
able to  large  ones.  Wheat  and  other  small  grains  are  very 
satisfactory.  Large  grains  like  corn  are  best  cracked  or 
broken.  Ground  or  pulverized  feeds,  singly  or  in  mixture, 
are  known  as  mashes.  Where  no  water  is  used,  this  food  is 
called  dry  mash;  with  water,  a  wet  mash.  Dry  mash  is  a 
favorite  in  some  places  and  not  in  others.  Clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  is  often  thrown  into  the  yard,  the  fowls  readily  eating 
the  leaves  and  delicate  parts.  Young  chicks  require  fine, 
easily  digested  food,  like  oatmeal,  cracked  wheat,  finely- 
granulated  corn,  chopped  vegetables,  etc.  Skim  milk  also  is 
a  valuable  food  for  growing  chickens. 

Green  food  for  fowls  causes  them  to  respond  very  rapidly 
in  increased  growth  or  egg  production.  When  on  a  range 
of  good  grass  no  other  green  food  need  be  provided,  but  dur- 
ing the  winter  season  succulent  food  is  most  desirable. 
Coarse  vegetables  are  often  sliced  or  chopped  into  small 
pieces  before  feeding,  although  entire  cabbages  or  roots  may 
be  hung  in  the  house  or  fastened  to  nails  on  the  walls,  from 
which  points  they  will  be  picked  to  pieces.  In  recent  years 
sprouted  oats  have  been  used  in  a  small  way  for  feed,  espe- 
cially for  young  chicks.  The  common  plan  is  to  make  a 
wooden  rack-like  arrangement,  to  contain  series  of  shallow 
pans.  The  desired  amount  of  oats  is  put  into  a  vessel 
and  covered  with  warm  water  and  let  stand  over  night. 


506 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Figure  244. — Fowls  eatin 
just  above  the  head.  J 
"Poultry  Manual." 


; cabbage  suspended 
eproduced  from  the 


The  surplus  water  is  then  drained  off  and  the  oats  are  spread 
over  the  pans  to  a  depth  of  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  an 
inch.  The  oats  should  then  be  placed  in  a  room,  preferably 
a  basement  or  cellar,  having  a  temperature  of  60  to  65  de- 
grees. The  oats  should  be  sprinkled  daily  with  tepid  water, 

and,  to  provide  drainage, 
the  bottom  of  the  pans 
should  be  perforated  with 
small  holes.  In  about 
ten  days  the  sprouts  will 
be  ready  to  feed  to  the 
chickens,  but  they  should 
be  used  sparingly  in  the 
first  of  the  feeding. 

The  amount  of  food 
necessary  for  fowls  de- 
pends entirely  upon  their 
size,  egg  production,  and  kind  of  food  fed.  The  best  plan  is 
to  prepare  standard  mixtures,  and  feed  as  much  as  will  be 
eaten  with  appetite. 

Regularity  in  feeding  fowls  is  essential.  On  many  farms 
the  poultry  must  forage 
for  themselves,  but  under 
proper  conditions  there 
should  be  special  grain 
feeding  morning  and  eve- 
ning. A  dry  mash  is 
commonly  kept  in  the 
house  at  all  times.  Other 
special  feeds  are  also  giv- 
en early  in  the  morning, 
about  noon,  and  just  before  the  birds  go  to  roost.  Regularity 
of  feeding  also  brings  the  fowls  into  intimate  touch  with  the 
poultryman,  and  enables  him  to  handle  them  and  watch 
their  condition  to  the  best  advantage. 


Figure   245. — Oats   sprouted   in   a  pan.     By 
courtesy  Cypher's  Incubator  Company. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


5.07 


Frequency  of  feeding  fowls  depends  upon  the  age,  con- 
dition, and  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept.  Young  chicks 
should  be  fed  four  or  five  times  daily.  The  feeding  of 
mature  fowls  varies  among  poult rymen,  some  feeding  twice 
and  others  three  times  a  day.  If  one  has  time  to  look  after 
the  stock  in  detail,  three  feeds  a  day  for  fowls  in  limited 
yards  will  give  better  results  than  will  two.  Most  good 
poultrymen  use  what  are  called  "hoppers"  or  "self-feeders." 
The  hopper  is  a  box-like  arrangement  containing  more  or 
less  feed,  from  which  the  fowls  can  eat  freely  at  any  time. 


Figure  246  —  Forced  feeding  of  fowls  in  England. 
Poultry  Herald. 


Photograph  by  courtesy  of 


Scattering  grain  in  cut  straw  or  floor  litter  is  a  good  plan, 
for  it  keeps  the  fowls  busy  and  ensures  slow  eating,  both 
of  which  habits  are  desirable.  Some  persons  feed  a  wet 
mash  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  grain  being  used  morning 
and  night.  Some  prefer  one  method  and  some  another. 

The  effect  of  food  on  the  quality  of  the  egg  is  very  notice- 
able in  some  cases.  Foods  of  strong  odor,  such  as  onions, 
impart  objectionable  flavor  to  eggs.  Corn  gives  an  undesir- 


508  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

able  yellow  yolk,  while  most  other  grains  produce  less  color. 
Green  food  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  also  furnish  the  high 
color  to  the  egg  so  commonly  seen  when  these  foods  are  fed. 
Forced  feeding  of  fowls  may  be  done  in  two  ways,  one 
when  the  feeder  simply  gives  the  birds  more  feed  than  they 
need  or  would  eat  under  natural  conditions;  the  other  being 
a  special  artificial  feeding  process  known  as  cramming, 
whereby  the  crop  is  filled  with  food  by  the  use  of  a  machine, 
and  the  fowl  fattened  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Of  course 
what  would  be  a  forced  feeding  of  one  fowl  might  not  be  of 
another,  because  of  difference  in  capacity. 

On  this  subject  of  forced  feeding  Robinson  says:* 
"Forced  feeding  is  almost  universal  among  poultrymen.  All  regular, 
good  feeding  is  in  a  sense  forced  feeding.  Even  under  natural  conditions 
with  opportunity  to  balance  their  own  rations,  full-fed  poultry  develop 
faster  and  better  individually,but  at  the  cost  of  shorter  life  and  reduc- 
tion of  vitality  in  the  offspring.  The  poultryman's  _ object  is  to  get 
as  much  as  possible  out  of  the  birds  in  the  shortest  possible  time;  that  is, 
to  market  as  soon  as  possible  those  destined  primarily  for  the  table,  and 
to  keep  laying  and  breeding  poultry  only  as  long  as  they  are  highly 
productive.  He  forces  by  feeding,  but  not  (intentionally)  to  the  danger 
point,  just  as  a  careful  horseman  often  drives  his  horse  much  faster  and 
farther  than  the  horse  would  go  of  its  own  accord,  yet  avoids  over 
driving." 

The  use  of  mineral  foods  by  fowls  is  even  more  important 
than  with  farm  animals.  Growth  in  proportion  is  really 
much  greater  with  the  fed  fowl  than  the  four-footed  animal, 
while  the  production  of  eggs  requires  a  considerable  amount 
of  mineral  matter.  The  common  supply  of  food  docs  not 
always  furnish  enough  of  the  mineral  substances,  and  espe- 
cially lime,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  fowl.  This  lack  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  laying  hen.  Consequently  some 
other  material  must  be  added,  and  green  ground  or  broken 
burned  bone,  granulated  dry  bone,  and  finely  broken  stone 
are  commonly  used  to  meet  this  need.  Ground  or  finely 
broken  oyster  shells  have  always  been  popular  for  laying 
hens.  As  to  the  exact  needs  of  the  body  for  mineral  food, 
we  do  not  know,  but  it  may  be  assumed,  as  based  on  practice 
and  the  result  secured  with  farm  animals,  that  the  mineral 

*Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture.     1911,  page  213. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


509 


substances  play  a  part  in  nutrition.  Robinson,  however, 
believes  that  in  "good  feeding  of  mixed  rations,"  under  range 
conditions  young  birds  get  all  the  mineral  elements  they 
require,  and  adult  birds  all  they  need,  except  for  producing 
egg  shells.  He  does  not 
think  grit  is  necessary, 
and  since  1902  has  fed 
none  to  poultry,  except 
in  the  first  feeds  of  young 
ducks  and  geese.  Gran- 
ulated charcoal  is  fre- 
quently used,  being  re- 
garded as  valuable  for 
correcting  sour  stomach 
and  other  forms  of  indi- 
gestion. Some  poultrymen  think  charcoal  is  a  blood  purifier. 
Water  for  fowls  should  be  clean  and  pure.  Drinking 
fountains  in  which  clean  water  may  always  be  found  are 


Figure  247. —  Cheaply  made  drinking  foun- 
tains. These  are  jars  filled  with  water  and 
turned  with  mouths  down  in  pans  of  water. 
Photograph  from  Ohio  State  University. 


Figure  248. — A  feed  hopper  and  covered  water  pan  at  left.      Photograph  from 
Prof.  F.  S.  Jacoby. 

commendable.     Fowls   are   rather   frequent   drinkers,    and 
should  always  have  plenty  of  clean  water  available.     In  win- 


510  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

ter,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  water  and  not  ice  or 
snow  is  supplied.  A  flock  of  fifty  hens  will  use  from  four 
to  six  quarts  of  water  a  day  in  ordinary  weather  conditions. 

Feeding  rations  for  fowls  naturally  vary,  some  persons 
preferring  one  ration  and  some  another.  Most  of  these  here 
given  are  easily  secured  or  may  be  readily  prepared,  as  the 
foods  used  in  the  combinations  are  grown  over  a  wide  extent 
of  country.  The  rations  given  are  quoted  from  reports, 
and  so  differ  in  total  amounts  and  in  statement  of  weights 
or  parts.  The  common  method,  however,  is  to  mix  up  a 
quantity  of  feed,  and  then  use  as  much  as  the  flock  requires. 

The  feeding  of  young  chicks  requires  very  careful  atten- 
tion. The  following  is  the  general  course  of  feeding  recom- 
mended by  the  poultry  department  of  the  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity. Milk  should  be  the  first  food  given.  Either  fine 
commercial  chick  feed  or  finely  cracked  corn  and  wheat 
should  be  given  in  the  litter  about  five  times  daily,  making 
sure  the  chicks  have  to  scratch  in  the  litter  to  get  the  grain. 
Plenty  of  exercise  for  the  chicks  is  desirable.  For  the  first 
week  bran  should  be  kept  available  in  shallow  pans  all  the 
time,  as  this  is  rich  in  mineral  matter,  is  bulky,  and  serves 
as  a  mild  laxative.  As  the  chicks  get  older  the  grain  feed- 
ing can  gradually  be  reduced  until  only  morning  and  even- 
ing scratch  feeds  are  given.  The  following  course  of  feed- 
ing is  especially  recommended  for  the  various  stages  of 
development,  using  as  much  of  the  several  mixtures  as  may 

be  desirable. 

First  week  Second  to  eighth  week 

SCRATCH  FEED  SCRATCH  FEED 

50  Ibs.  corn  finely  cracked  60  Ibs.    corn  finely  cracked 

40    "   wheat    "          "  40  Ibs.  wheat  "            " 

10    "   rolled  oats  MASH 

MASH  20  Ibs.   bran 


Wheat  bran  10 

Milk  all  time  10 

10 
5 
1 


middlings 
corn  meal 


ground  oats 

meat  scraps  or  tankage* 

bone  meal 


*Use  milk  in  place  of  scrap  or  tankage,  if  available. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY 


511 


Eighth  week  to  maturity 
SCRATCH  FEED  MASH 

200  Ibs.  cracked  corn  200  Ibs.  bran 

100    "   oats  or  wheat  100    "  middlings 

100    '•  corn  meal 

100    "  ground  oats 

75    "  meat  scrap 

5   "  bone  meal 

In  addition  to  the  above,  it  is  desirable  to  feed  young 
chicks  sprouted  oats,  cabbage,  mangels,  beets  or  green  grass, 
each  of  these  to  be  fed  in  finely  prepared  form,  as  may  be 
available.  When  on  the  range  such  food  need  not  be  pre- 
pared. Infertile  eggs  from  the  incubator,  hard  boiled  and 
chopped  up,  make  excellent  feed  for  young  chicks  and  they 
should  always  be  fed  rather  than  cast  aside. 


Figure  249. — The  average  amount  of  grain  consumed  by  a  laying  hen  in  a 
year,  producing  142  eggs.  Photograph  from  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  1040. 

Rations  for  egg  production  used  in  different  sections  of 
the  United  States,  vary  more  or  less,  according  to  material 
available.  The  following  rations  are  recommended  by  vari- 
ous authorities  engaged  in  research  work  in  feeding  fowls. 
(By  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture — Farmers'  Bulletin  1067) 

Ration  No.  1 

MASH  SCRATCH  MIXTURE 

16  Ibs.  corn  meal  1  Ib.     cracked  corn 

6M* "    meat  scrap  1    "     wheat 


bran 
middlings 


1 


oats 


512  A   STUDY   OF   FARM   ANIMALS 

Ration  No.  2 

2  Ibs.  corn  or  barley  meal  2  Ibs.    cracked  corn 
1     "    bran  1    "      oats 

1    "   middlings  1    "     wheat  or  barley 

1    "    meat  or  fish  scrap 

Ration  No.  3 

3  Ibs.  corn  meal  2  Ibs.    cracked  corn 

1  "   meat  scrap  1    "     oats 

Ration  No.  4 

9  Ibs.  corn  meal  2  Ibs.  cracked  corn 

5    "    middlings  1    "  wheat 

4  "    bran  1    "  oats 

2  "    cottonseed  or  gluten  meal          1    "     barley 
2    "    meat  scrap 

2  per  cent  bone  meal 

(In  Ohio  at  Ohio  State  University) 
DRY  MASH  SCRATCH 

100  Ibs.    corn  meal  100  Ibs.  cracked  or  shelled  corn 

100    '      wheat  middlings  100    "   wheat  or  oats 

100    "     bran  Green  food,  grits  and  oyster 
100    "      oats  shells 

100   "     meat  scraps  or  tankage 

Feed  the  grain  mixture  morning  and  afternoon  in  a  deep 
litter  of  straw.  Feed  sparingly  in  the  morning,  but  give 
the  hens  all  they  will  eat  in  the  afternoon.  Feed  the  dry 
mash  in  a  hopper  which  is  open  at  all  times.  Keep  grit  and 
shell  in  open  hoppers.  Feed  green  food  once  a  day. 
(In  Minnesota,  Bulletin  119,  Minnesota  station,  page  153} 
A  mash  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  finely  ground  corn, 
oats,  or  shorts,  mixed  with  about  10  per  cent  of  cooked 
meat,  green  cut  bone,  or  beef  scraps  are  mixed  together  dry. 
Then  thoroughly  mix  with  about  one  third  this  bulk  of 
steeped  clover  leaves  or  finely  cut  clover,  which  has  previ- 
ously been  scalded.  Another  mixture,  to  be  only  slightly 
moistened  with  water,  is  the  following: 

2  parts  bran  1  part  wheat  shorts 

1  part  ground  corn  1  part  ground  oats 

1  part  beef  scraps  1-10  part  charcoal 

(In  North  Carolina,  Bulletin  211,  North  Carolina  station,  page  54.} 

In  an  experiment  extending  from  December  to  May,  dif- 
ferent rations  were  fed  to  pens  of  10  hens  each.     The  largest 


THE  FEEDING  OF  POULTRY  513 

production  of  eggs  and  the  least  cost  occurred  in  pens  14 
and  15,  fed  the  following: 

4  parts  corn  meal  4  parts  wheat  bran 

2  parts  meat  meal  2  parts  bone  meal 

Cottonseed  meal  was  used  in  three  cases.  Pens  20  and 
22,  fed  four  parts  each  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  cotton- 
seed meal,  did  very  unequal  work,  one  pen  laying  225  eggs 
and  the  other  378. 

(In  Kansas,  Bulletin  164,  Kansas  station,  page  290.) 
The  following  laying  ration  has  been  a  success  in  feed- 
ing White  Leghorns  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks.  Between 
February  1  and  November  1,  1909,  one  White  Plymouth 
Rock  produced  201  eggs  and  another  196,  at  a  cost  for  feed 
of  90  cents  each.  The  Leghorns  averaged  166.1  eggs  for  the 
same  nine  months,  at  a  slightly  less  cost.  Following  are 
the  rations: 

GRAIN  MASH 

10  parts  wheat  6  parts  wheat  shorts 

10  parts  corn  3  parts  bran 

5  parts  oats  6  parts  corn  meal 

5  parts  beef  scrap 
1  part  alfalfa  meal 

Fattening  ration  for  fowls.  Fowls  to  be  fattened  should 
be  kept  in  a  limited  enclosure  and  given  but  little  exercise, 
and  fed  a  fattening  ration.  Specialists  place  chickens  in 
crates  and  fatten  them  rapidly  for  three  or  four  weeks. 
Professor  Jackson,  formerly  of  the  Pennsylvania  station,  re- 
porting on  fattening  in  Bulletin  No.  107,  says: 

"The  common  ration  of  corn  meal  is  rarely  as  satisfactory  as  a 
combination  of  grains.  An  excellent  mixture  is  equal  parts  of  finely 
ground  corn  meal,  buckwheat,  and  oats  with  the  hulls  removed.  A 
ration  of  one  to  two  parts  corn  meal,  one  part  middlings  and  five  per  cent 
meat  scrap  may  be  used  if  it  is  not  possible  to  secure  the  other  grains. 
It  is  important,  whatever  grains  are  used,  that  they  be  finely  ground. 
If  this  ration  is  mixed  with  sour  milk,  no  animal  food  will  be  needed." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  the  above  rations,  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  and  wheat  bran  or  middlings  are  the  standard 
foods  used.  Meat  meal  or  beef  scrap,  skimmed  milk,  and 
clover  or  alfalfa,  are  always  desirable.  In  the  far  West, 

17 


514  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Kafir  corn  or  millet  seed  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Where 
barley  is  commonly  grown,  this  is  to  be  recommended  as  a 
feed,  and  may  be  used  in  place  of  corn,  if  desired. 

A  REVIEW  OF  THE  POULTRY  FEEDING  SITUATION 

1.  Compare  the  crop  and  the  gizzard. 

2.  What  kind  of  diet  should  be  given  a  fowl? 

3.  How  often  should  poultry  be  fed? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  forced  feeding,  and  when  it  is  practiced. 

5.  Why  is  mineral  matter  fed,  and  under  what  conditions? 

6.  Under  what  conditions  should  water  be  supplied? 

7.  Give  the  best  method  of  feeding  young  chicks  from  the  second  to 

eighth  week. 

8.  Give  two  rations  for  laying  hens  used  in  different  states,  and  the 

method  of  feeding. 

9.  Name  the  five  most  common  feeding  stuffs  used. 

INTERESTING  EXPERIMENTS  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 

10.  Carefully  examine  the  crop  and  digestive  organs  of  a  chicken. 

(a)  When  taken  from  a  freshly-killed  fowl. 

(b)  Freeze  a  fowl  solid  in  winter,  and  with  a  saw  cut  it  in  two 
lengthwise  and  somewhat  on  one  side,  to  show  the  digestive 
organs  in  place. 

11.  Make  up  two  pens  of  hens,  equal  in  number.     Feed  one  lot  a  car- 

bonaceous food,  like  corn;  the  other  a  protein  food,  such  as  wheat. 
Give  some  green  food,  oyster  shells,  and  grits.  Keep  a  record  of 
egg  production,  and  after  some  weeks  report  to  the  school. 

12.  Make  up  two  pens  of  hens.     Feed  alike,  except  to  give  one  pen 

oyster  shells,  and  allow  none  to  the  other.  Keep  a  record  of  the 
number  and  condition  of  the  eggs,  and  report. 

13.  Prepare  what  you  believe  to  be  a  good  ration  of  home-grown  feeds 

for  growing  chickens,  and  bring  a  sample  to  school  for  inspection 
and  criticism. 

14.  Report  on  the  rations  fed  by  any  two  or  more  poultrymen  in  the 

community  in  which  you  live, 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  need  of  housing  or  shelter  for  fowls  varies  with  the 
section  of  the  country  and  the  local  conditions  under  which 
they  are  kept.  While  close  housing  is  no  longer  needed  to 
the  extent  formerly  thought  necessary,  naturally  more  pro- 
tection is  required  in  the  colder  sections  than  in  the  warmer. 
In  winter,  in  New  England,  where  the  ground  is  usually 
covered  with  snow,  shelter  is  a  necessity;  while  in  Texas, 
where  snow  rarely  falls,  less  protection  is  required. 

The  forms  and  styles  of  poultry  houses  differ  widely,  and 
no  one  kind  is  regarded  as  the  best.  A  collection  of  photo- 
graphs or  views  of  one  thousand  houses  will  show  a  very 
interesting  variety  of  style  and  construction.  Years  ago 
buildings  were  often  made  of  brick  or  stone,  at  great  expense, 
and  were  very  warm  and  almost  air  tight  in  winter.  In 
recent  years  the  construction  is  less  expensive,  and  fresh  air 
properly  supplied  is  an  important  feature. 

Several  types  of  poultry  houses,  each  for  a  special  pur- 
pose, are  more  or  less  in  use  in  this  country.  These  may  be 
placed  in  the  following  classes:  (a)  Laying  pen  house,  (b) 
fattening  house,  (c)  brooder  house,  (d)  colony  house,  (e) 
shelter  coop.  While  plans  and  details  of  construction  can 
not  be  given  in  the  limited  space  of  this  volume,  some  sug- 
gestions of  interest  and  value  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  that  may  be  well  worth  careful  study. 

The  laying  pen  house  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing fowls  in  confinement,  in  groups  suitable  for  the  best 
results.  Yards  or  runs  limit  the  range  of  the  hens.  These 
houses  are  permanent  of  location  and,  as  a  rule,  are  of  sub- 
stantial construction.  Formerly  they  were  made  with  tight 

515 


516  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

walls,  had  glass  windows,  and  in  winter  the  air  within  was 
kept  at  as  comfortable  a  temperature  as  possible.  Some- 
times these  houses  were  lathed  and  plastered.  Not  much 
attention  was  given  to  ventilation.  Houses  of  this  sort  are 
not  built  as  much  as  formerly;  and,  if  they  are,  cloth  screens 
on  the  front  or  south  side  replace  most  of  the  glass,  pure  air 
being  regarded  as  a  necessity.  In  many  cases,  these  houses 
have  open  front  windows,  except  in  the  coldest  winter 
weather,  when  the  cloth  screens  are  dropped.  Laying  pen 
houses  are  of  different  styles,  a  common  one  having  a  simple 
single-pitch  shed  roof,  with  a  height  of  6  or  7  feet  at  the 


Figure  250. — A  large  laying  house  and  yards.     Photograph  from  Prof.  F.  S. 

Jacoby. 

south,  and  4  or  5  feet  at  the  rear.  It  is  best  to  have  the 
house  of  a  depth  that  will  allow  sunshine  to  reach  as  near 
the  back  wall  as  possible.  A  depth  of  14  feet  and  a  width 
of  12  to  14  feet  for  each  pen  is  a  satisfactory  size.  One 
should  allow  5  square  feet  for  each  bird  in  such  a  house.  In 
a  house  of  this  sort  the  floor  should  be  made  of  concrete  in 
order  to  make  it  rat-proof  and  to  keep  it  dry.  This  floor 
may  be  covered  with  cut  straw  or  chaff,  and  be  used  in  cold 
weather  as  a  scratching  shed.  The  walls  should  be  tight 


THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  517 

enough  to  prevent  drafts.  The  roosts  may  be  placed  just 
above  a  low  platform  at  the  rear  or  on  one  side,  below  which 
are  the  nests.  In  front,  plenty  of  window  space  should  be 
provided,  which  should  be  covered  with  poultry  wire  netting, 
and  also  have  cotton  cloth  screens,  to  be  dropped  during  very 
cold  weather.  Doors  of  standard  size  are  usually  placed  at 
one  or  both  ends  of  the  house,  with  wire  doors  in  the  parti- 
tions, to  allow  passage  through  the  various  pens.  In  houses 
containing  many  pens,  doors  are  sometimes  provided  to  give 
entrance  from  the  pens  into  the  yards. 

The  fattening  house  is  a  small  structure  containing  crates 
in  which  fowls  are  fattened,  arranged  along  each  side  of  a 
passage  way.  The  house  is  of  simple  construction,  and 
has  superior  ventilation  with  inferior  light,  as  fowls  are  best 
fattened  under  conditions  of  subdued  light.  Fattening 
crates  are  in  tiers,  with  feeding  trays  in  front  of  each,  which 
with  other  conditions  provide  for  the  least  amount  of  labor 
in  caring  for  the  birds.  Houses  of  this  kind  are  not  com- 
mon on  American  farms,  but  are  used  especially  by  men  who 
make  a  business  of  fattening  fowls  for  market. 

A  brooder  is  a  device  used  in  connection  with  the  incu- 
bator, and  is  in  a  sense  an  artificial  mother.  The  general 
plan  of  the  brooder  is  that  of  a  warm  box  or  room,  heated 
either  by  a  small  oil  stove  or  a  coal  stove.  The  former  pro- 
vides uniform  warmth  for  from  100  to  200  chicks,  and  the 
latter  for  from  200  to  500.  Within  the  brooder  is  what 
is  called  a  ' 'hover."  A  circular  plate  or  cover  of  more  or 
less  diameter,  according  to  the  size  of  the  hover,  is  placed 
about  ten  inches  above  the  floor.  From  the  rim  of  this 
plate  a  cloth  curtain  extends  to  the  floor.  Pieces  of  cloth 
are  also  suspended  from  different  parts  of  the  underside  of 
the  cover  to  the  floor.  Here  and  there  the  cloth  is  slit  so 
the  chicks  may  freely  pass  through  and  find  a  warm  protec- 
tion among  the  strips  of  cloth,  comparable  to  being  under  the 
mother's  wing.  The  small  brooder  house  has  but  one  hover, 


518  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

but  the  large  houses,  which  are  heated  by  coal  stoves,  may 
have  several.  The  temperature  under  the  bro'oder  should 
be  kept  as  nearly  100°  F.  as  possible.  A  brooder  house 
may  be  a  simple  box-like  affair  of  one  room  6  by  8  feet  in 
size,  with  the  hover  in  the  back  and  a  door  and  window  in 
front.  On  large  farms  it  may  be  of  considerable  size,  con- 
taining a  series  of  pens,  in  the  end  of  each  of  which  is  a 
hover,  warm  air  being  supplied  by  a  hot-water  heating 
plant.  The  floor  of  the  brooder  should  be  covered  with  fine 
sand,  if  at  all  available.  The  brooder  should  have  plenty 
of  sunlight;  it  should  be  rat-proof;  it  should  be  roomy  with 


Figure  251. — A   colony   house  at  Ohio   State   University.     Photograph  from 
Prof.  F.  S.  Jacoby. 

plenty  of  scratching  space;  good  ventilation  should  prevail; 
and  the  temperature  should  be  easily  controlled. 

The  colony  house  is  a  small,  single-room  building  con- 
taining roosts  and  nests,  and  located  in  a  yard  or  field.  It 
is  simple  and  cheap  of  construction,  and  is  usually  portable, 
so  as  to  be  easily  moved  from  place  to  place.  There  is  no 
one  style  of  house;  and  structures  are  made  of  all  kinds  of 
material,  ranging  from  piano  boxes,  at  a  total  cost  of  $3  or 
$4  up  to  those  made  with  care  by  a  carpenter,  costing  $35 


THE  POULTRJ  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  519 

or  $40.  A  fairly  good  type  of  colony  house  has  both  a  door 
and  window  in  front,  the  latter  being  covered  with  wire 
screening,  and  with  a  curtain  to  be  used  for  cold  weather 
protection.  A  small  window  in  one  end,  for  both  ventila- 
tion and  light,  and  a  wooden  floor  are  also  desirable  features. 
Poultrymen  having  houses  differing  widely  in  style  of  con- 
struction and  lighting  seem  to  get  equally  good  results  from 
their  fowls.  Two  strong  arguments  for  the  colony  house 
are,  that  a  floek  of  about  the  right  size  may  be  kept  in  a 
yard  of  suitable  area;  also  the  house  may  be  shifted  from 
time  to  time  to  new  and  clean  soil  conditions,  thus  provid- 
ing good,  permanent  sanitation.  Colony  houses  may  be 
hauled  into  grain  fields  after  the  harvest,  where  the  fowls 
secure  uncommonly  good  forage  of  grain  and  insects. 


Figure  246. — A  handy  shelter   coop  and  run.     Reproduced  from  "Poultry 

Houses." 

The  shelter  coop  is  usually  built  for  a  hen  and  a  brood 
of  chickens.  It  varies  much  in  construction.  Common 
boxes  2  or  3  feet  square,  with  slat  or  wire  front;  empty  barrels, 
with  a  slat  attachment  at  one  end;  and  shelters  of  ter^t  or  A- 
shape  are  frequently  seen.  These  coops  should  be  made  so 
as  to  enable  the  chicks  to  pass  freely  in  and  out,  to  give 
the  hens  dry  and  comfortable  shelter,  and  to  protect  the 
chicks  at  night  from  rats  and  other  vermin. 

The  location  and  construction  of  the  poultry  house  require 
careful  thought,  if  the  most  satisfactory  results  are  to  be 


520  A  STUDY  OF  FARM  4NIMALS 

secured.  A  few  suggestions,  therefore,  which  are  rather 
general  in  their  application,  are  here  given. 

The  site  of  the  poultry  building  should  be  where  drainage 
is  good  and  the  soil  naturally  dry.  Further,  the  elevation 
should  be  sufficient  for  a  good  circulation  of  .air.  Under 
damp  conditions  throat  or  lung  trouble  is  very  likely  to 
occur.  In  damp  soil  of  a  clayey  or  loamy  nature,  intestinal 
and  other  parasites  that  affect  poultry  breed  more  freely 
than  elsewhere.  A  dry  location  promotes  clean  bodies  and 
feet,  which  mean  the  production  of  clean  eggs. 

The  size  of  the  poultry  house  should  depend  upon  the 
number  of  fowls  one  wishes  to  keep.  On  most  farms  large 
flocks  do  not  give  as  satisfactory  returns  as  small  ones.  With 
a  flock  of  50,  each  bird  should  be  allowed  5  square  feet  of 
room.  With  larger  flocks  not  quite  so  much  space  per  fowl 
will  be  required.  One  can  obtain  satisfactory  returns  with 
100  fowls  of  the  smaller  breeds  in  a  house  with  20  by  20  feet 
of  floor  space.  If  fowls  are  crowded,  good  results  in  egg 
production  can  not  be  expected. 

The  width  of  the  poultry  house  depends  upon  size  of  the 
flock.  Under  most  conditions,  a  house  14  or  16  feet  wide 
is  ample  for  each  pen.  One  should  plan  to  use  standard 
lengths  of  timber,  so  that  as  little  waste  as  possible  will 
occur  in  sawing.  Poultry  houses  20  feet  wide  are  being 
constructed  to-day  quite  generally  by  farmers  with  large 
flocks,  this  size  being  economical  in  cost  of  material,  and 
providing  a  maximum  of  space  for  the  same. 

The  foundation  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  of  con- 
crete or  stone,  if  intended  for  a  permanent  laying  house. 
This  foundation  should  be  deep  enough  in  the  ground  not  to 
be  affected  by  the  action  of  frost,  and  should  rise  6  to  12 
inches  above  the  surface.  The  thickness  of  wall  will  depend 
on  local  conditions,  ranging  from  6  to  8  inches.  Portable 
colony  houses  may  be  built  on  4  x  4  runners.  Halpin  and 
Ocock,  of  Wisconsin  University,  recommend  the  use  of 


THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 


521 


"two  small  trees  of  some  durable  wood  which  may  be  flat- 
tened off  on  top  and  tapered  off  at  both  ends  so  as  to  make 
a  satisfactory  runner." 

The  walls  of  the  poultry  houses  are  built  of  wood,  brick, 
concrete,  or  stone.  The  most  common  method  is  to  use 
2x4  studs  nailed  to  2  x  6  sills,  over  which  matched  siding 
is  nailed  horizontally.  When  well  put  together,  this  makes 
a  wall  free  from  drafts  and  very  satisfactory.  If  rough 
boards  are  used,  battens  or  strips  should  be  tacked  over 
any  cracks.  It  is  not  desirable  to  place  siding  over  the 


/J'O"- 


nn 


-J'O" 


M<?T 


\ 


*FLOORinG 


~—2'0" 


t±fx? 


6 "X4~  RunneR'  U-A?'4 

Figure  252. — Front  elevation  building  plans  of  the  Purdue  Brooder  Colony 
House.     Reproduced  from  Extension  Bulletin  52,  Purdue  University. 

studs  on  the  inside,  for  in  that  case  rats  and  mice  will  find  a 
place  for  hiding.  A  wooden  wall  in  winter  is  most  satisfac- 
tory, as  solid  concrete  or  stone  may  be  moist  or  frosty  under 
some  conditions.  Concrete  or  brick  walls  that  are  partly 
hollow  are  preferable  to  the  solid  wall. 

The  roof  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  strong,  simple, 
and  comparatively  inexpensive.  A  single-span  or  shed  roof 
is  most  common  and  can  be  built  with  least  cost.  If  the 
house  is  over  14  feet  wide,  the  usual  2x4  rafters  should  be 


522 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


supported.  A  combination  roof  has  a  double  pitch,  having 
a  short  pitch  in  front  and  a  long  one  behind.  This  type  of 
roof  is  well  suited  to  buildings  wider  than  14  feet,  and  gives 
a  strong  construction.  A  two-pitch,  or  gable-roof,  house 
usually  has  rafters  of  the  same  length,  coming  to  a  ridge  in 
the  center.  This  gives  a  high  center  to  the  pen,  hence  a 
loss  of  heat,  so  that  in  winter  the  house  is  likely  to  be  cold. 
A  ceiling  is  sometimes  built  in  such  a  house,  and  attic  stor- 
age room  thus  provided.  What  is  called  the  half -monitor 
roof  has  one  long  sweep  of  rafter  for  perhaps  two  thirds  the 


Figure    253. — End    view  Purdue  Brooder  Colony  House.     Reproduced  from 
Extension  Bulletin  52,  Purdue  University. 

width  of  the  house.  Below  the  high  point  of  rafter  a  vertical 
wall  is  dropped  sufficiently  to  allow  a  line  of  windows.  From 
the  bottom  of  the  window  sill,  a  shorter  length  of  rafter 
gives  the  necessary  front  pitch  to  the  roof.  There  are  also 
houses  with  the  fronts  slanting  to  the  ground,  and  others  of 
wood  that  have  roofs  of  the  tent  form,  with  no  side  walls  in 
front  or  behind.  A  roof  covering  of  rough  boards  and  as- 
phalt or  tarred  composition  paper  of  some  sort  gives  good 


THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT 


523 


satisfaction.  Wooden  shingles  in  most  localities  are  too  ex- 
pensive, and  in  the  colder  sections  shingle  roofs  are  too 
drafty  and  cold  in  winter. 

The  floor  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  of  concrete  in 
the  permanent  house;  but,  in  the  colony  house,  one  of 
matched  flooring  is  best.  Effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the 
floor  dry,  and  to  prevent  the  harboring  of  rats  or  other  vermin. 

Partition  material  in  the  poultry  house  should  usually  be 
of  wire  netting.  If  the  house  is  long,  a  close  wooden  or 


Figure  254. — Interior  of  poultry  house,  showing  trap  nests.     Reproduced  from 
Circular  37,  Purdue  University. 

cloth  partition  at  intervals  is  desirable,  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  building,  and  also  to  prevent  drafts.  A  house  of  six  pens 
might  have  one  solid  central  partition,  and  others  of  wire. 
The  windows  of  the  poultry  house  should  be  adjusted  to 
local  conditions.  In  the  southern  states,  glass  should  be  un- 
necessary. In  the  colder  North,  an  arrangement  by  which 
one  sliding  glass  window  can  be  arranged  in  connection  with 
cloth-screened  openings  will  give  the  best  satisfaction.  The 


524  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

windows  should  have  a  covering  of  wire  screening,  with  cur- 
tains that  are  to  be  used  only  in  severe  weather.     Some 
men,  in  fact,  keep  permanent  open  fronts  in  their  houses, 
never  using  glass  or  cloth  screen,  and  do  not  believe  that 
their  birds  suffer  from  cold  at  any  time. 

Perches  should  be  in  the  warmer  part  of  the  pen,  free 
from  drafts,  and  not  high  above  the  floor.  The  perches 
should  be  12  inches  apart,  and  not  nearer  the  wall  than  15 


Figure  255. — Details  of  wall  nests.     From  Extension  Bulletin  57  of  Purdue 
University. 

inches.  They  should  be  fastened  together  in  a  frame  and 
hinged  to  the  wall,  being  supported  level  with  standards, 
or  legs.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  board  platform  a  few 
inches  below  the  perch,  on  which  the  droppings  may  be 
caught.  The  perches  may  be  raised  as  desired,  and  the 
droppings  removed.  Perches  of  2  x  4  pieces,  on  edge,  with 
rounded  corners  are  recommended. 


THE  POULTRY  HOUSE  AND  EQUIPMENT  525 

The  nests  should  be  against  the  wall,  and  be  12  or  14 
inches  square,  according  to  the  size  of  fowl.  Nests  are  some- 
times placed  below  the  dropping  board,  the  hens  entering 
from  the  back  and  the  eggs  being  removed  from  the  front 
by  means  of  a  hinged  door.  These  nests  have  the  advan- 
tage of  being  rather  dark,  as  hens  under  such  conditions 
rarely  eat  their  eggs.  Open  nests  may  be  fastened  to  the 
side  of  the  pen,  if  desired,  a  common  method.  Trap  nests 
are  used  in  many  houses  to-day.  The  principle  of  this  nest 
is  that,  when  the  hen  enters,  she  springs  a  trapdoor,  and  so 


Figure  256. — A  three-section  trap  nest,  showing  one  section  shut.     Photograph 
from  United  States  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

is  confined  until  released  by  the  poultryman.  Thus  he 
knows  just  what  hens  lay  each  day,  and  makes  a  record  of 
the  same.  Hens  laying  in  trap  nests  usually  are  numbered 
with  metal  leg-bands. 

A  dust  bath  in  the  poultry  house  is  most  important.  The 
process  of  dusting  is  the  method  by  which  the  bird  keeps 
herself  free  from  lice  and  similar  pests.  Many  poultrymen 
have  a  corner  of  the  pen  arranged  so  that  road  dust,  sifted 
coal  ashes,  or  dry  sand  may  be  put  there  for  dusting.  A 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches  of  dust  enclosed  by  pieces  of  com- 
mon six-inch  fencing  boards  will  do.  No  poultry  house 
should  be  without  a  dust  bath,  especially  during  the  winter. 


526  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

IF  YOU  HAD  "CHICKEN  FEVER/'  COULD  YOU 

1.  Describe  the  important  features  of  the  laying  house? 

2.  Explain  the  purpose  of  the  fattening  house? 

3.  Describe  a  hover  and  its  use? 

4.  Tell  of  the  construction  and  value  of  the  colony  house? 

5.  Compare  a  good  and  a  bad  site  for  poultry  buildings? 

6.  Figure  out  the  size  of  house  you  might  need,  and  tell  why? 

7.  Compare  the  single  and  the  double-pitch  roof? 

8.  Discuss  the  subject  of  window  covering? 

9.  Instruct  in  the  essentials  of  perch  construction? 

10.  Tell  where  to  place  the  nests  and  the  size  they  should  be  made? 

SOME  INTERESTING  THINGS  TO  BRING  TO  SCHOOL 

11.  A  picture  of  the  poultry  yard  at  home,  showing  buildings. 

12.  A  picture  of  the  best  poultry  building  you  know  of  in  the  vicinity. 

13.  A  drawing  showing  cross-section   construction  of   some  poultry 

house  of  which  you  know. 

14.  A  report  on  the  roost  arrangement  in  different  poultry  buildings. 

15.  A  report  on  the  locations  of  a  few  poultry  yards  on  different  farms. 

16.  A  statement  of  the  number  of  farmers  in  the  vicinity  who  keep 

chickens  but  have  no  special  poultry  houses  for  them. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
DISEASES  AND  AILMENTS  OF  POULTRY 

Poultry  is  not  only  universal  on  the  farm,  but  frequently 
raised  on  the  home  lot  in  smaller  villages  and  towns.  Thus 
a  large  percentage  of  our  population  comes  in  intimate  con- 
tact with  poultry,  but  more  especially  with  chickens.  Un- 
fortunately many  of  these  birds  are  given  inferior  care. 
They  are  kept  in  unsanitary  pens,  and,  as  a  result,  disease 
or  various  ailments  affect  them.  Under  such  conditions 
comes  a  call  for  information  as  to  the  nature  of  the  trouble 
and  means  of  remedying  it.  This  chapter,  therefore,  will 
discuss  briefly  the  more  common  afflictions  of  poultry,  with 
suggestions  of  preventive  measures  or  curative  treatment. 

Roup.  This  is  a  germ  disease  that  affects  the  nose, 
mouth,  or  eye  of  chickens.  In  the  nasal  form  there  is  a 
thin,  watery,  offensive  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  which 
finally  becomes  thick  and  stops  the  nasal  passage.  In  the 
mouth  form,  yellow  or  yellow-white  patches  and  ulcers, 
similar  to  diphtheria,  occur.  In  the  eye  form  the  membrane 
covering  the  front  of  the  eye  becomes  inflamed,  a 'watery, 
whitish  fluid  accumulates,  and  the  eyelids  stick  together. 
The  birds  sneeze  and  throw  off  mucus,  the  appetite  fails, 
diarrhea  occurs,  and  there  is  marked  weakness.  In  con- 
nection with  each  form,  in  order,  comes  catarrh  and  discharge 
of  mucus;  the  formation  of  a  membrane  in  the  mouth  and 
throat,  similar  to  diphtheria;  and  inflammation  of  the  eyes, 
and  often  destruction  of  the  eyeball. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  provide  sanitary 
quarters  for  fowls,  to  ward  off  this  disease.  Good  ventila- 
tion should  be  provided  in  the  poultry  house,  but  no  drafts 
should  be  permitted.  It  is  important  that  the  house  be 

527 


528  A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

kept  dry,  and  cleaned  and  disinfected  daily.  A  5  per  cent 
solution  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  mixed  with  whitewash  is  an 
excellent  disinfectant,  using  2  pounds  of  the  acid  to  5  gallons 
of  the  whitewash.  A  preventive  measure  used  with  success 
in  recent  years  is  the  bacterin  treatment,  inoculating  the 
fowls  with  a  product  made  from  the  disease  germs.  This 
treatment  makes  the  birds  immune. 

For  medical  treatment  of  roup,  stick  silver  nitrate  is  used 
for  burning  ulcers  in  the  mouth,  and,  after  the  white  matter 
of  the  eye  is  wiped  off  with  absorbent  cotton,  the  silver 
nitrate  may  be  used  here.  The  nasal  passage  may  be  washed 

out  with  a  20  per 


^  cent     solution      of 

common  baking 
soda  (sodium  bicar- 
bonate),  using 
either  a  medicine 
dropper  or  small 
syringe,  forcing  the 
fluid  through  the 
passage  into  the 

Figure  257.— A  hen  sick  with  roup.     Photograph         HlOUth.    This   treat- 
from  Ohio  State  University.  ,         _    , 

ment  may  be  fol- 
lowed with  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  The  affected  parts  should 
then  be  cleaned  with  essential  oils,  of  which  the  following  is 
recommended  by  Dr.  B.  F.  Kaupp:*  Oil  of  thyme  1  dram, 
oil  of  eucalyptus  20  drops,  oil  of  petrol  2  ounces.  This 
treatment  should  be  given  three  times  daily. 

Fowl  cholera  is  a  germ  disease,  distributed  by  many 
agencies,  as  sick  birds,  water,  wind,  manure,  insects,  wild 
birds,  etc.  Cholera  affects  chickens,  ducks,  turkeys,  geese, 
pigeons  and  wild  birds,  especially  the  buzzard.  The  germs 
exist  under  quite  a  wide  range  of  conditions,  and  may  live  a 
long  time.  In  protracted  cases,  writes  Dr.  Kaupp,  "there 
is  a  noted  loss  of  appetite,  great  prostration,  staring  feathers; 

*Poultry  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment,  1914. 


DISEASES  AND  AILMENTS  OF  POULTRY  529 

the  bird  mopes  or  sits  around  with  tail  and  head  down,  giv- 
ing a  so-called  'ball'  appearance,  the  comb  is  dark,  the  gait 
swaying,  and  there  is  trembling,  convulsions,  thirst,  and 
severe  diarrhea,  with  passages  of  a  greenish-yellow  color. 
There  is  high  fever  and  the  bird  rapidly  becomes  emaciated." 
Post  mortem  shows  enlargements  of  liver,  spleen  and  kid- 
neys, and  unnatural  dark  color  of  these  organs.  The  intes- 
tines are  also  inflamed,  and  may  show  hemorrhage. 

Preventive  measures  against  cholera  require  absolute 
cleanliness,  and  the  liberal  use  of  disinfectants.  Dr.  Kaupp 
reports  that  inoculating  with  vaccine  made  from  germs 
producing  the  disease  has  given  excellent  results.* 

Treatment  of  birds  sick  with  cholera  is  not  generally 
satisfactory,  especially  if  the  cases  are  bad,  the  best  plan 
being  to  kill  and  burn  the  carcass.  Sick  birds  should  be 
isolated  from  the  flock.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  the  fowls 
antiseptic  water,  consisting  of  one  teaspoonful  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  which  is  also  added  1  per 
cent  of  copper  sulphate  and  potassium  permanganate. 

Chicken  pox  is  very  closely  related  to  roup,  excepting 
that  the  face  and  comb  are  affected  with  scabby  excrescences 
from  the  size  of  a  pinhead  to  a  pea.  The  same  treatment 
should  be  given  as  for  roup,  and  the  affected  parts  should  be 
bathed  with  antiseptics. 

White  diarrhea  is  a  bacterial  disease  of  an  infectious  nature 
that  affects  chicks  at  from  one  to  four  days  of  age.  The 
disease  may  come  from  an  infected  egg,  or  from  other  flocks. 
The  symptoms  of  the  disease  usually  appear  before  the 
chicks  are  ten  days  old.  The  chicks  appear  "droopy,"  do 
not  eat  well,  the  wings  hang  low,  there  is  general  weakness, 
the  birds  peep  constantly,  and  a  loose,  somewhat  sticky  dis- 
charge comes  from  the  bowels,  which  more  or  less  pastes  up 
the  vent.  A  dead  chick  will  appear  very  bloodless  and  thin, 
with  crop  and  intestines  empty  or  containing  slimy  material. 
There  is  no  cure  for  this  disease.  It  is  of  the  first  importance 

*Poultry  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment,  1914. 


530 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


that  eggs  for  hatching  come  from  a  flock  free  from  this 
malady.  The  disease  may  be  detected  by  a  blood  test  of 
egg-laying  hens,  and  such  tests  are  made  by  some  of  the  state 
experiment  stations.  Proper  sanitation  of  the  incubator  and 
chicken  quarters  is  vitally  necessary.  The  incubator  should 
be  kept  in  the  dark  until  the  chicks  are  removed  to  the 
brooder,  thus  in  a  measure  preventing  the  chicks  from  pick- 
ing bits  from  the  eggs.  It  is  also  wise  to  keep  the  chicks  in 
small  lots,  thus  restricting  spread  of  the  disease.  Sour  milk 
is  highly  recommended  as  a  preventive  of  the  disease. 
Tuberculosis  of  fowls,  or  what  is  known  as  avian  tuber- 
culosis, has  been 
known  in  the 
United  States  since 
1899,  it  being  first 
reported  in  investi- 
gations  at  the 
Oregon  Experiment 
Station.  Since  then 
it  has  been  located 
in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  and 
the  disease  seems  to 
be  becoming  quite 
common.  Tuber- 
culosis of  fowls  is 
much  jthe  same  as 
that  of  humans, 
cattle,  or  swine,  and 
affects  the  birds  in 
like  manner.  There  is  emaciation,  paleness  of  comb,  wattles, 
and  skin,  oftentimes  a  persistent  greenish  diarrhea,  lameness, 
and  in  the  later  stages  the  feathers  become  dry  and  ruffled, 
and  the  bird  is  weak  and  stands  about,  moving  but  little.  A 
post  mortem  examination  shows  the  liver  more  or  less  thickly 


Figure  258. — The  spleen  (A)  and  liver  (B)  of  a  tuber- 
cular fowl.  The  white  spots  are  nodules,  or  tuber- 
cles. Photograph  from  Ohio  State  University. 


DISEASES  AND  AILMENTS  OF  POULTRY  531 

covered  with  yellowish  spots  varying  from  very  small  size 
to  as  much  as  a  half  inch  in  diameter.  The  intestines  are 
also  often  extensively  covered  with  tubercles.  In  fact  the 
disease  in  advanced  stage  affects  all  the  internal  organs,  and 
even  the  skeleton  itself. 

There  is  no  remedy  for  this  disease.  All  known  affected 
birds  should  be  killed  and  burned,  and  the  poultry  houses 
and  yards  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  Whitewash  should  be 
freely  used  in  the  houses.  As  the  disease  is  known  to  be 
transmitted  through  the  eggs,  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  eggs  for  setting,  as  well  as  purchased  fowls,  come  from 
healthy  flocks.  If  fowls  roam  among  droppings  from 
tubercular  cattle  or  swine,  the  disease  may  be  contracted. 

Gapes  is  a  parasitic  disease  due  to  small  worms  attached 
to  the  inside  of  the  windpipe.  These  worms  increase  and 
finally  choke  the  chicken,  which  gapes  for  breath,  hence  the 
name.  Unless  the  worms  are  removed,  death  may  ensue. 
The  female  worm  while  in  the  windpipe  produces  many  eggs, 
which  are  either  sneezed  out  by  the  fowl  or  are  swallowed 
and  passed  off  in  the  droppings.  In  a  few  days,  under  favor- 
able conditions,  these  eggs  hatch,  and  the  young  worms  re- 
main alive  in  the  soil  a  long  time  or  may  be  picked  up  by 
the  chickens  and  the  trouble  thus  be  continued.  A  common 
treatment  recommended  is  to  take  a  long  horse  hair  and  twist 
the  ends  together  to  make  a  loop.  By  holding  the  chick's  head 
in  one  hand,  the  neck  extended,  the  bill  wide  open,  one  may 
insert  the  hair  loop  down  the  windpipe  about  an  inch,  give 
it  two  or  three  turns,  and  then  withdraw,  in  which  event 
several  worms  will  come  out.  It  is  recommended  to  dip 
the  hair  loop  in  a  solution  of  creolin,  one  teaspoonful  to  a 
quart  of  water,  before  placing  in  the  windpipe.  Turpentine 
is  also  used  in  the  same  manner.  This  will  destroy  worms 
by  contact.  It  is  also  suggested  that  the  creolin  solution 
may  be  sprayed  in  the  throat  with  a  common  atomizer,  which 
will  kill  the  worms  so  that  the  chick  may  cough  them  up. 


532  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Disinfectants  should  be  liberally  used  about  the  poultry 
plant  in  order  to  ward  off  this  parasite. 

Scaly  leg,  or  scabies,  is  due  to  a  parasite  that  develops 
on  the  legs  of  chickens  and  turkeys.  The  parasite  gets 
under  the  scales  on  the  legs  and  bites  the  tissue,  causing  an 
irritation  and  blistering.  From  these  blisters  when  ruptured 
come  the  scales  which  appear  in  many  instances  as  a  thick 
coat  or  mass  on  the  feet  and  legs.  This  condition  is  associ- 
ated with  extreme  itching  of  the  parts,  and  birds  may  stop 
laying  and  die  from  the  influence  of  the  parasites. 

Scabies  is  easily  destroyed.  The  scabby  patches  should 
be  thoroughly  soaked  with  suds  made  from  tarred  soap  or 
other  antiseptic  soap.  After  removing  the  scales,  the  legs 
should  be  scrubbed  with  kerosene. 

If  the  roosts  and  droppingboards  of  the  poultry  house 
are  from  time  to  time  thoroughly  sprayed  with  kerosene, 
scaly  legs  will  not  be  likely  to  cause  trouble. 

Lice  and  mites  among  fowls  cause  much  irritation  and 
loss  of  condition.  There  are  many  forms  of  these  external 
parasites,  of  which  seven  are  common  on  chickens.  These 
are  known  as  body  lice,  head  lice  and  feather  lice. 

Body  lice  are  most  abundant  under  the  wings  and  about 
the  vent.  These  lice  lay  eggs  in  clusters  on  the  web  part  of 
the  feather  close  to  the  quill,  mostly  on  the  small,  short 
feathers  below  the  vent.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a  week, 
and  the  lice  reach  full  size  in  about  20  days. 

Feather  lice,  which  are  usually  found  on  the  feathers  of 
the  back  or  breast  of  mature  fowls,  even  though  common, 
are  not  so  troublesome,  as  they  feed  on  the  feathers  and 
scales  along  the  quills.  Both  body  and  feather  lice  are  easily 
gotten  rid  of,  either  by  the  use  of  sodium  fluoride,  a  powder 
poisonous  to  poultry  lice,  applied  among  the  feathers  next 
to  the  skin,  or  by  blue  ointment  about  the  vent,  using  a 
piece  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  When  sodium  fluoride  is  used, 
"not  more  than  12  small  pinches  should  be  put  on  one  fowl 


DISEASES  AND  AILMENTS  OF  POULTRY  533 

at  a  time,  as  too  much  is  injurious."^  One  pound  of  powdered 
sodium  fluorid  will  treat  100  fowls. 

Head  lice  are  found  on  the  heads  of  chickens  of  all  ages, 
but  especially  young  chicks.  These  lice  may  be  killed  by 
applying  a  drop  of  vaseline  or  melted  lard  to  the  top  of  the 
head,  under  the  wings,  and  around  the  vent.  Clean  manage- 
ment and  proper  sanitation  are  safeguards  against  lice. 

Chicken  mites  are  very  small  external  parasites  that  differ 
from  lice,  in  being  blood  suckers,  living  on  the  blood  of  the 
fowl.  The  mites  hide  in  the  cracks  about  the  roosts  and 
droppingboards  much  of  the  time,  especially  during  the  day, 
coming  out  at  night  and  crawling  on  the  birds.  These  pests 
are  easily  gotten  rid  of  by  the  use  of  kerosene  or  whitewash 
about  the  interior  of  the  poultry  house. 

Stick-tight  fleas  are  common  on  fowls  in  the  southern 
and  southwestern  states.  They  locate  in  clusters  on  the 
comb  and  wattles  and  around  the  eyes.  They  breed  in 
cracks  in  the  poultry  house,  and  among  refuse  material. 
Their  attacks,  if  not  prevented,  may  result  in  the  death  of 
young  chickens,  and  will  cause  hens  to  stop  laying.  Treat- 
ment requires  greasing  the  comb  and  wattles  with  a  mixture 
of  1  part  kerosene  and  3  parts  lard.  Poultry  buildings  should 
be  thoroughly  sprayed  with  disinfectants  or  whitewashed. 

Crop-bound,  or  impaction  of  the  crop,  is  due  to  swallow- 
ing substances  too  large  or  coarse  to  pass  on  into  the  stomach 
and  gizzard.  Small  feathers,  straw,  roots,  parings,  etc.  gen- 
erally cause  the  trouble.  In  a  well  developed  case  of  crop- 
bound,  it  is  recommended  f  to  mix  a  teaspoonful  each  of 
castor  oil  and  hot  milk,  and  pour  through  the  throat  into 
the  crop,  followed  with  a  gentle  kneading  of  the  crop  with 
the  fingers,  and  softening  the  mass,  if  possible,  so  that  it  will 
pass  on  through  the  digestive  tract.  Probably  it  will  be 
wiser  in  most  cases  to  destroy  the  affected  bird. 

Bumble  foot  is  a  swelling  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot  of 
fowls,  which  is  comparable  with  a  "stone  bruise."  It  is 

*Lice,  Mites  and  Cleanliness.     Farmers'  Bulletin  1110,  U.  S.  Dep't.  of  Agr. 
fPoultry  Manual.     By  F.  L.  Sewell,  Ida  E.  Tilson  and  others.     1912. 


534  A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

usually  caused  by  jumping  from  roosts  to  hard  floors.  When 
the  swelling  reaches  a  certain  stage,  pus  forms  therein.  At 
this  stage  the  bottom  of  the  foot  should  be  opened,  and  the 
swelling  drained,  washed  with  sterilized  water,  and  cleaned 
thoroughly  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  tincture 
of  iodine.  The  bird  must  then  be  kept  on  clean  straw  until, 
after  further  treatment,  the  foot  has  healed.  Heavy  fowls 
should  not  be  compelled  to  fly  from  high  roosts. 

Freezing  of  comb  and  wattles  of  fowls  is  not  unusual  in 
the  colder  latitudes.  In  severe  cases  death  may  follow  the 
freezing.  If  the  affected  parts  have  not  been  thawed,  they 
should  be  brought  back  to  as  near  normal  condition  as  pos- 
sible by  rubbing  with  snow  or  cold  water,  and  gradually 
thawing.  After  thawing,  apply  to  the  affected  parts  either 
vaseline,  glycerine,  or  tincture  of  myrrh. 

Egg-eating  by  hens  is  a  bad  habit  which  is  usually  taken 
up  by  accident,  due  to  a  broken  or  frozen  egg.  In  some 
instances  a  number  of  hens  in  a  pen  will  become  egg-eaters, 
and  the  habit  will  become  serious.  Eggs  are  not  so  readily 
eaten  in  a  dark  nest,  so  if  the  boxes  are  arranged  so  that  the 
hens  must  enter  from  the  back  side,  away  from  the  light, 
the  eggs  will  not  be  so  visible  and  probably  will  not  be  eaten. 
Another  preventive  method  is  to  cut  off  the  sharp  point  of 
the  beak,  without  cutting  into  the  sensitive  part. 

Cannibalism  among  chicks  may  become  quite  common, 
especially  when  they  are  confined  in  the  brooder  in  large 
numbers.  This  is  due  to  improper  nutrition  and  overcrowd- 
ing. If  the  chicks  do  not  get  green  stuff,  such  as  sprouted 
oats,  bugs,  etc.,  they  tend  to  pick  at  various  objects,  includ- 
ing their  own  kind.  If  blood  starts,  this  satisfies  the  crav- 
ing for  animal  food,  and  they  pick  on  the  injured  chick  until 
it  is  killed  and  partly  eaten.  Sour  milk,  sprouted  oats, 
chunks  of  green  sod,  and  bits  of  meat,  prevent  this  habit. 
Out  door  exercise  each  pleasant  day  is  also  highly  desirable. 
Regarding  overcrowding,  it  is  recommended*  to  brood  not 

*Baby  Chick  Troubles  and  Their  Control.     E.  L.  Dakan,  Bulletin  No.  5. 


DISEASES  AND  AILMENTS  OF  POULTRY  535 

more  than  300  under  one  stove,  with  200  a  safer  number. 
Leg  weakness  is  quite  common  in  early  hatched  flocks 
that  are  kept  closely  confined.  While  this  trouble  is  not 
well  understood,  it  is  believed  to  be  due  to  a  lack  in  nutri- 
tion, possibly  mineral  matter.  Under  ideal  management, 
with  plenty  of  exercise  and  a  liberal  feed  of  bone  meal, 
milk,  and  green  food,  leg  weakness  should  not  exist. 

HOW  IS  THIS  FOR  A  POULTRY  QUESTION  BOX? 

1.  What  forms  of  roup  are  there,  and  how  identified? 

2.  How  would  you  treat  a  case  of  roup? 

3.  Describe  an  advanced  stage  of  chicken  cholera. 

4.  Is  treatment  for  cholera  satisfactory? 

5.  When  and  where  was  fowl  tuberculosis  first  discovered  in  America? 

Is  there  a  remedy  for  this  disease? 

6.  How  would  you  treat  a  case  of  gapes? 

7.  Describe  the  development  of  scaly  leg. 

8.  Where  do  body  lice  live  on  chickens,  and  how  do  they  reproduce? 

9.  How  do  mites  get  their  nourishment? 

10.  What  leads  a  hen  to  the  egg-eating  habit? 

MAKE  A  FEW  OBSERVATIONS 

11.  Try  to  trace  the  origin  of  a  case  of  roup. 

12.  Get  a  sick  fowl  and  determine  the  trouble. 

13.  If  chickens  with  gapes  are  available,  try  spraying  the  throat  with 

creolin  solution  in  an  atomizer  and  note  result. 

14.  Bring  a  case  of  scaly  leg  to  the  class. 

15.  See  how  many  forms  of  lice  you  can  find  among  your  own  poultry. 

16.  Survey  the  neighborhood  and  ascertain  where  poultry  diseases 

occur,  and  how  cases  are  treated. 


APPENDIX* 


TABLE  A 

Dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  some  common  feeding  stuffs. 

(Total  pounds  in  100  of  feed.) 


Kind  of  feed. 

Dry 

matter. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat. 

Total 
nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

Corn,  dent  

89.5 

7.5 

67.8 

4.6 

85.7 

1:  10.4 

Corn,  flint  

87.8 

7.7 

66.1 

4.6 

84.2 

1:     9.9 

Corn  meal  or  chop  

88.7 

6.9 

69.0 

3.5 

83.8 

1:  11.1 

Corn  and  cob  meal.  .  .  . 

89.6 

6.1 

63.7 

3.7 

78.1 

1:   11.8 

Gluten  feed,  high  grade  . 

91.3 

21.6 

51.9 

3.2 

80.7 

1:     2.7 

Oats  

90.8 

9.7 

52.1 

3.8 

70.4 

1:     6.3 

Ground  oats  

89.2 

9.4 

51.4 

4.1 

70.0 

1:     6.4 

Wheat  bran 

89  9 

12  5 

41  6 

3  0 

609 

1:     39 

Wheat  middlings-flour  . 

89.3 

15.7 

52.8 

4.3 

78.2 

1:     4.0 

Wheat  middlings,  stand- 

ard   

89.5 

13.4 

46.2 

4.3 

69.3 

1:     4.2 

Cotton  seed  

90.6 

13.3 

29.6 

16.5 

80.0 

1:     5.0 

Cotton-seed  meal,  choice 
Cotton-seed  meal-good.. 

92.5 
92.1 

37.0 
31.6 

21.8 
25.6 

8.6 
7.8 

78.2 
74.8 

1:     1.1 
1:     1.4 

Cotton-seed  hulls  

90.3 

0.3 

33.3 

1.5 

37.0 

1:122.3 

Linseed-meal  old  process 

90.9 

30.2 

32.6 

6.7 

77.9 

1:     1.6 

Soy  bean  

90.1 

30.7 

22.8 

14.4 

85.9 

1:     1.8 

Tankage-Over   60%    P. 
Corn  fodder-green  

92.6 
21.9 

58.7 
1.0 

12.8 

12.6 
0.4 

87.0 
14.7 

1:     0.5 
1:  13.7 

Corn  stover,  medium  in 

water  

81.0 

2.1 

42.4 

0.7 

46.1 

1:  21.0 

Corn  silage,  mature  .... 

26.3 

1.1 

15.0 

0.7 

17.7 

1:   15.1 

Alfalfa,  green  

25.3 

3.3 

10.4 

0.4 

14.6 

1:     3.4 

Alfalfa,  hay  

91.4 

10.6 

39.0 

0.9 

51.6 

1:     3.9 

R?d  clover  hay  

87.1 

7.6 

39.3 

1.8 

50.9 

1:     5.7 

Timothy  hay  

88.4 

3.0 

42.8 

1.2 

48.5 

1:  15.2 

Cow  pea  hay  

90.3 

13.1 

33.7 

1.0 

49.0 

1:     2.7 

Mangel  wurzcl  

9.4 

0.8 

6.4 

0.1 

7.4 

1:     8.2 

Skim  milk  (separator)   . 

9.9 

3.6 

5.1 

0.2 

9.1 

1:     1.5 

*  Note:  The  tables  in  the  appendix  are  compiled  from  "Feeds  and  Feeding" 
by  W.  A.  Henry  and  F.  B.  Morrison,  1917  edition  ,  which  volume  contains  stan- 
dard analyses  of  feeding  stuffs  and  feeding. standards. 


537 


538 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


A  TABLE  OF  FEEDING  STANDARDS 

The  following  table  is  made  up  from  the  modified  Wolff- 
Lehman  feeding  standards,  as  arranged  by  Henry  and  Morri- 
son. The  purpose  of  this  table  is  to  enable  one  to  work  out 
a  few  easy  problems  "in  feeding.  For  example,  if  we  assume 
one  has  a  horse  at  light  work,  and  is  using  feeds  given  in 
table  A,  then  with  the  aid  of  table  B,  he  should  be  able  to 
figure  out  if  the  ration  fed  is  supplying  the  animals'  needs. 
The  application  of  these  tables  is  explained  in  Chapter  IX. 

TABLE  B 

Per  day  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 


Animal 

Dry  matter 
Pounds 

Digestible 
Protein 
Pounds 

Total 
digestible 
nutrients 
Pounds. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Dairy  cows 
For  maintenance  

0.700 

7.925 

To  maintenance  allowance  add: 
For  each  Ib   2  5  per  ct   milk 

0  045-0  053 

0  256 

For  each  Ib.  3.0  per  ct.  milk  .  .  . 
For  each  Ib.  4.0  per  ct.  milk.  .  . 
For  each  Ib.  5.0  per  ct.  milk  .  .  . 
Growing  fattening  steers 
250  pounds  

25.6 

0.047-0.057 
0.054-0.065 
0.060-0.073 

3.0 

0.286 
0.346 
0.402 

17.7 

1:4.9 

500  pounds 

23  9 

2  1 

15  8 

1:6  5 

800  pounds  
Fattening  2-yr.  old  steers  on  full  feed 
First  50-60  days  

21.4 
22.0-25.0 

2.0 
2.0-2.3 

14.3 

18.0-20.0 

1:6.2  ' 

1:7.0-7.8 

Third  50-60  days  
Horses  at  medium  work  
Fattening  lambs 
Weight  50-70  Ibs 

18.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 

27.0-30  0 

1.8-2.1 
1.4-1.7 

3  1-3.3 

16.0-18.5 
12.8-15.6 

19.0-22.0 

1:7.0-7.8 
1:7.8-8.3 

1:5.0-6.0 

Weight  90-110  Ibs  

27.0-31.0 

2.3-2.5 

19.0-23.0 

1:7.0-8.0 

Crowing  fattening  pigs 
Weight    50-100  Ibs  
Weight  100-150  Ibs  
^Weight  150:200  Ibs  
Brood  sow  with  pigs  .  .  . 

37.0-40.8 
.32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
20.0-24.0 

5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
2.4-2.7 

32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 

25.8-28.5 
18.0-21.0 

1:5.0-5.6 
1:5.5-6.2 
1:6.2-7.0 
1:6.0-7.0 

APPENDIX  539 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock.    H.  W.  Vaughan. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals.     C.  S.  Plumb. 

Shorthorn  Cattle.     Alvin  H.  Sanders. 

History  of  Shorthorn  Cattle.     James  Sinclair. 

The  Story  of  the  Herefords.     Alvin  H.  Sanders. 

History  of  Aberdeen-Angus  Cattle.     MacDonald  and  Sinclair. 

The  Guernsey  Breed.    Charles  L.  Hill. 

Cyclopedia  of  Farm  Animals.     Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production.     C.  H.  Eckles. 

Dairy  Cattle — Feeding  and  Management.     C.  W.  Larson. 

Productive  Dairying.     R.  M.  Washburn. 

Management  of  Dairy  Plants.     M.  Mortenson. 

The  Horse  and  its  Relatives.     R.  Lydekker. 

A  History  of  the  Percheron  Horse.     Sanders  and  Dinsmore. 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry.     Carl  W.  Gay. 

The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease.     F.  B.  Hadley. 

Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses.     M.  W.  Harper. 

The  Horse  Book.    J.  H.  S.  Johnstone. 

Swine  in  America.     F.  D.  Coburn. 

Pork  Production.     William  W.  Smith. 

The  Hog  Book.     H.  C.  Dawson. 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry.     George  E.  Day. 

Productive  Sheep  Husbandry.     W.  C.  Coffey. 

Sheep  Farming  in  North  America.     John  A.  Craig. 

Sheep  Farming  in  America.     J.  E.  Wing. 

Sheep  Management.     Frank  Kleinheinz. 

Modern  Milk  Goats.     I.  Richards. 

The  Breeding  of  Animals.     F.  B.  Mumford. 

Breeding  of  Farm  Animals.     M.  W.  Harper. 

Principles  of  Breeding.     E.  Davenport. 

Breeding  of  Farm  Animals.     F.  R.  Marshall. 

Principles  and  Practices  of  Judging  Live  Stock.     C.  W.  Gay. 

Live  Stock  Judging  and  Selection.     R.  S.  Curtis. 

Judging  Farm  Animals.     C.  S.  Plumb. 

Feeds  and  Feeding.     W.  A.  Henry  and  F.  B.  Morrison. 

Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals.     F.  W.  Woll. 

The  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals.     H.  P.  Armsby. 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding.     H.  R.  Smith. 

Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals.     Sleeter  Bull. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals.     W.  H.  Jordon. 

Feeding  of  Dairy  Cattle.     A.  C.  McCandlish. 

Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals.     R.  A.  Craig. 

Practical  Poultry  Production.     Lamon  and  Kinghorne. 

Poultry  Production.     W.  A.  Lippincott. 

Mating  and  Breeding  Poultry.     Lamon  and  Slocum. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture.     J.  H.  Robinson. 

Productive  Poultry  Husbandry.    H.  R.  Lewis. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus    cattle,    227. 
Accredited    herds,    264. 
Acquaintance    of    breeders,    52. 
Action   of   horse,   171,   188,    194. 
Advertising,    61. 
Age— 

of  horse,   173. 

of  pigs  in  relation  to  feeding, 
420. 

of  sheep,   358. 

influence   of  age  in  beef  pro- 
duction,  257. 

on  growth  of  sheep,  368. 
on   milk   production,   303. 
Airing  of  eggs,  497. 
Albumen  of  egg,  491. 
Alfalfa,  108. 
American  saddle  horse,  148. 

trotter  or  pacer,  150. 
Amino  acid,   77. 
Analyses,  feeding  table,   537. 
Analyzing  feeding  stuff,  84. 
Ancestral  line  of  dam,  42. 
Ancestry  in  pedigree,  43. 
Angora  goats,  353. 
Angus  cattle,  Aberdeen,  227. 
Animal — 

as  a  machine,  17. 

character,  variation  In,  28. 

form,  study  of,   138. 

relation  to  function,  125. 

type   and   its   importance,   138. 

knowledge  of,  142. 
Animals — 

and   soil   fertility,   16. 

buying  immature,  127. 

community  breeding  of  farm, 
57. 

composition  of,  65. 

defects  of,  127. 

first  use  of  by  man,  12. 

for  clothing,   13. 

for  food,  14. 

for  labor,  14. 

in  early  days,  138. 

judging  farm,  125. 

most  prepotent,  22. 

natural  interest  in,  129. 
Ankle,  cocked,  181. 
Anthrax,  226. 

Antiscorbutic  vitamines.  71. 
Artificial  selection,   30. 
Ash,  mineral  matter,  66. 


Ass,  161. 
Association — 

community  breeders,  63. 

cow-testing,  308. 

registry,  53. 
Aylesbury  duck,  469. 
Ayrshire  cattle,  281. 

Babcock  text,  307. 
Bacon  hog — 

belly,  416. 

ham,  416. 

judging,  415. 

shoulder,  416. 

type,  appearance,  417. 
hog,  415. 
score  card,  415. 
Balanced  ration,  90. 
Bantam,   467. 
Barley,  106,  120. 
Bates,  Thomas,  219. 
Beak,  fowl's,  485,  503. 
Bean,   soy,  109. 
Bedding  for  swine,  431. 
Beef- 
baby,  249. 

bull,   247. 

calves,   247. 

cattle,  breeds,  217. 

cows,  feeding,  breeding,  246. 

feeding,  245. 

form,  235. 

judging,  233,  243. 

production,  255. 

quality  in,  238. 

score  card  for,  234. 

self-feeder  for,  255. 

selling,  261. 

separate  care,  262. 

type,  301. 

Belgian  horse,  158. 
Belly,  hogs,  412,  416. 
Belted,  cattle,  Dutch,  285. 
Benefits,  club,   447. 
Berkshire   swine,  390. 
Bermuda  grass,  104. 
Big  China  swine,  392. 
Bile,  78. 

Black-faced  Highland,  352. 
Black-leg,  264. 
Blanketing  horses,  210. 
Blastoderm,  491. 


541 


542 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Boar — 

feeding,  425. 

removing  tusks,  435. 

wild,   389. 
Body  of  carriage  horse,  185. 

of  dairy  cow,  293. 

of  hog,  410. 
Body  lice,  532. 
Bog  spavin,  178. 
Book,   private   flock,  381. 

swine  herd,  436. 
Booth  family,  219. 
Border  Leicester  sheep,  349. 
Bourbon   Red  turkey,   468. 
Boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  440,  445. 
Brahma,  light,  466. 
Bran,  119. 

Breaking  colts,  212. 
Breast  harness,  215. 
Breed  cattle — 

Hereford,   223. 

Holstein-Friesian,  274. 

Jersey,  269. 
Breed  character,  36. 
Breed  influence  in  beef  produc- 
tion, 256. 

in  feeding  sheep,  369. 
Breed,  special-purpose,  48. 
Breeders',  acquaintance  of,  52. 
Breeders'    associations,    63. 
Breeders',    suggestions   to,    48. 

Breeding — 

community,  57,   60,  62. 

growing  cattle,  248. 

heredity  in  stock,  22. 

ideal  in,  23. 

identification  of  stock,  54. 

method  in,  59. 
Breeds — 

beef  cattle,  217. 

dairy  cattle,  269. 

geese,  471. 

horses,  144. 

influence    of    in   milk   produc- 
tion,  302. 

in  pork  production,  421. 

literature  of,  55. 

poultry,   459. 

sheep  and  goats,  333. 

stories  of,   52. 

swine,  389. 
Bridle,  214. 
Brome  grass,  103. 
Bronze  turkey,  467. 
Brood  mare,  feeding,   201. 
Brood   sow,   feeding,  423. 
Brooder,  517. 
Brown   Swiss  cattle,  284. 


Bull,   beef,  247. 

feeding  dairy,  319. 

form,  dairy,   290. 
Bumble  foot,   533. 
Buying   immature    animals,    127. 
Byfleld  swine,   392. 
By-laws,  association,  451. 

club,  443. 
By-products  of  cereals,  116. 

Cake,    cold-pressed    cottonseed, 

122. 

Calculating  rations,  93,  94,  95. 
Calf,  feeding,  247,   311,  312. 
Calorie,  79. 
Calorimeter,  80. 
Canada  field  peas,  109. 
Candling  eggs,  492. 
Cannibalism  among  chicks,   534. 
Cannon  bone,  166,  193. 
Carbohydrates,  67,  70,  77. 
Care  of  cattle,  262. 
of  horses,  208. 
of  sheep,   379. 
of  swine  and  pigs,  430. 
Carrots,   113. 
Cattle— 

Aberdeen-Angus,  227. 
characteristics,   228. 
Ayrshire,  281. 

characteristics,  282. 
distribution,  284. 
milk,  283. 
beef  breeds,  217. 
feeding-,  245.   - 
quality,  238. 
score-card  for,  234. 
self-feeder  for,  259. 
selling  margin  in,  261. 
Brown  Swiss,   284. 
dairy  breeds,  269. 
breeding,   310. 
quality,  290. 
temperament,  290. 
Devon,  286. 
Dexter,  286. 
Dutch  Belted,  285. 
feeding  standards,  96,  245,  310. 
French  Canadian,  285. 
Galloway,  231. 
growing    breeding,   248. 

Guernsey,  278. 

characteristics,  279. 

distribution,  281. 

prices,  281. 
Hereford,  223. 

characteristics,  225. 

Polled,  226. 


INDEX 


543 


Holstein-Friesian,    274. 
characteristics,  275. 
distribution,  278. 
milk,  276. 
prices,  278. 
Jersey,  269. 

characteristics,  270. 
milk,    272. 
prices,  273. 
judging-   beef,    233. 
breeding  beef,   243. 
dairy,  288,  291. 
Kerry,  285. 
Red  Polled,  286. 
short-fed,    252. 
Shorthorn,    218. 

characteristics,  221. 
Wilk  White,  217. 
Cereals,   104,   116. 
Character,   knowledge  of  breed, 

.  36. 

variation  in  animal,  28. 
Characters,     latent     hereditary, 

26. 

peculiar,  26. 
selection  of,  32. 
Charbon,   266. 
Cheshire  swine,  402. 
Chester  White,  397. 
Cheviot,   345. 
Chicken   mites,   533. 
Chicken  pox,   529. 
Cholera  in  fowls,  528. 

in  hogs,  434. 
Chop  feed,  200. 
Chyle,   78. 
Classification  of  live  stock,  139, 

141,  333. 

of  market  wool,  327. 
Clipping  horse,   209. 
Clothing,  use  of  animals  for,  13. 
Clover,  red,  107. 
Clubs — 

benefits,  447. 
boys'  and  girls',  440,  445. 
constitution.  443. 
county  committee,  445. 
object  of,  441. 
organization,  442. 
prizes  for  members,  446. 
standardization  of  work,  444. 
Clydesdale  horse,  155. 
Cob  meal,  118. 
Cochin,  466. 
Collar,  215. 

Colling,  Charles  and  Robert,  218. 
Colony  house,  518. 
Color  markings,  24. 
Colt,  breaking  and  training,  212. 


Colt's  teeth,  173. 
Comb  of  fowl,  487. 
Combing  wool,   327,  328. 
Composition  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, 65,  69. 

Concentrates,  68,  115,  312. 
Constitution  and  by-laws,  443. 
Coop,  shelter,  519. 
Co-operative  marketing,  457. 
Co-operative    shipping    associa- 
tions, 450. 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  118. 
Corn,  Indian,  104,  116. 
Corn  meal,  117. 
Cortex,  wool,  323,  324. 
Cotswold,  349. 
Cotted  fleece,   326. 
Cottonseed   meal,  121. 
feed,    122. 
cake,   122. 

Coupling,  horse,  168. 
Cow — 

body,  dairy,  293. 
compared,  301. 
dairy  form,  289. 
feeding,   313. 
food  producer,  300. 
mammary  development,  295. 
Cowpea,    109. 
Cows,  feeding,  91,  246,  314,  318. 

score  card  for  dairy,  291. 
Cow-testing  associations,  308. 
Crack,   quarter,   180. 

toe,   180. 

Crimp  of  wool,  324. 
Crop-bound,  533. 
Crop,  fowls',   503. 
Cross-bred  animals,  39. 
Croup,   horse's,   169. 
Cruickshank,   Amos,   220. 
Culling  of  herd,  32. 

of  poultry,  483. 
Curb,  177. 

Dairy  animal,  size,  288. 
Dairy  bull,   feeding,   319. 

form,  290. 
Dairy  calf,   feeding  milk,  311. 

feeding  roughage,  311. 
Dairy  Cattle — 

body,  293. 

breeds,  269. 

feeding,  91,  96,  310,  312,  314. 

food  producer,  300. 

judging,  288,  291. 

parts,  292,  299. 

score  card,  291. 
Dam,  line  of,  42. 
Decision  of  the  judge,  137. 


544 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


Defects    in   animals,    127. 
Delaine  Merino,  335. 

score  card,  363,  364. 
Delaine   wools,    328. 
Density  of  fleece,   325. 
Devon  cattle,  286. 
Dexter  cattle,  286. 
Dextrose,   70. 
Diarrhoea,  white,   529. 
Difficulty    of    co-operative    mar- 
keting,  457. 

Digestible  nutrients,  84. 
Digestion,  process  of,   74. 
Diseases  and   ailments  of  poul- 
try,  527. 
Distribution  of — 

Ayrshires,  284. 

Guernseys,  281. 

Holstein-Friesians,   278. 

Jerseys,  273. 

Shorthorns,  220. 
Docking  sheep,  385. 
Domestic  animals,  a  study  of,  9. 
Domestic  wools,  328. 
Dorset  Horn  sheep,  130,  344. 
Draft  horse — 

action,  194. 

appearance,  190. 

judging,  190. 

parts,   192,   194. 

score  card,  192. 
Dropping  sheep,   382. 
Dry  cows,  feed  for,  318. 

Ducks — 

Aylesbury,  469. 

Cayuga,  470. 

Indian  Runner,  470 

Mallard,  468. 

Muscovy,  470. 

Pekin,  469. 

Rouen,  469. 

types,   469. 

Wild,  468. 

Duroc-Jersey  swine,  395. 
Dust  bath   for  poultry,   525. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  285. 

Ear  lobes,  fowls',  485. 

Egg- 
color,  500. 
fertile,  491. 
freshness,    500. 
incubation,  492. 
parts,  491. 
score  card,  481. 

Egg-eating  hens,  534. 

Egg-laying  type,   459. 

Egg-producing  capacity,  484. 


Egg  production,  ration,  511. 

body  changes  due  to,  486. 

color  changes  due  to,  484. 

influence  of  molt  on,  488. 
Eggs- 
incubation  for,  498. 

market  grades,   501. 

preservative  for,  501. 

score  card,   481. 

size  and  weight,  499. 

testing,  492. 

turning,  airing,  497. 
Emden  goose,  471. 
Energy  value  of  food,  80. 

of  feeding  standards,  90 
Environment,  33. 
Epidermis  wool,  323. 
Erepsin,   77. 
Ewe,    feeding    and    caring    for, 

370. 
Exercise  for  bull,  247. 

for  sheep,  381. 

for    swine,    431. 
Expense  of  advertising,   61. 

of   co-operative   shipping,  455. 
Eye  rings,  fowls',  485. 

Fads,  51. 
Farrowing,  430. 
Fat   content,    307. 
Fattening  fowls,  513. 

cattle,  249. 

lambs,    374. 

pigs,  425. 

sheep,    374. 

yearlings,  375. 
Fatty  acids,  78. 
Feather   lice,   532. 
Feathers,  475. 
Fecundity,  24. 
Feed  lot,  260. 
Feed  racks  for  sheep,  387. 
Feeding — 

beef  calves,  247,  313. 

beef  cattle,  245,  246,  249. 

boar,  425. 

breeding  stock,  370. 

brood  sow,  424. 

dairy  bull,  319. 

dairy  calf,  311,  312. 

dairy  cows,   91,   96,   310,  313. 

foal,  202. 

fowls,   503,   506,  508,   510. 

horse,  197,  198,  201,  203,  204. 

lambs,    371,   375. 

sheep,  367,  368,  369,  370,  373. 

steers,  250,  253. 

suckling  pigs,  424,  425. 


INDEX 


545 


swine,  418,  419,  420. 

yearlings,  251. 
Feeding  analysis,   537. 
Feeding  standards — 

analyzing,   84. 

beef  cattle,  245. 

calculating,  93. 

dairy  cattle,  96. 

energy   value,    90. 

selection  of,   93. 

table  of,  538. 

Wolff,    87. 

Wolff-Lehmann,  89,  368. 
Feeds- 
chop,  200. 

concentrated,  115. 

cottonseed,  122. 

gluten,  118. 

hominy,  118. 

roughage,  100. 
Fiber  of  wool,  325. 
Fleas,  stick-tight,  533. 
Fleece,   324. 
Flock   book,    381. 
Foal,  feeding,  202. 
Food — 

animals  as,   13, 

carbohydrates,  77. 

digestible   nutrients   in,   84. 

effect  of  on  milk  yield,  305. 
on  egg  quality,  507. 

energy  value,  80. 

fat,  78. 

green  for  fowls,  505. 

heat  value,  79. 

mineral,   78,   421,   508. 

palatability   of,    81. 

plant  as  source  of,  65. 

protein,  77. 

required,    86. 

Foot  and  mouth  diseases,  265. 
Forage,    107. 
Form — 

beef  animal,  235. 

dairy  bull,   290. 

dairy  cow,  289. 

hog,  405. 

relation  of  to  function,   125. 

study  of,  138. 
Founder,   180. 
Fowls — 

culling,  483. 

diseases,  527. 

feeding,  503. 

housing,   515. 

judging,   473. 

parts,    474. 

types  and  breeds,  459. 


Freezing  comb  and  wattles,  534. 
French  Canadian  cattle,  285. 

Galloway   cattle,    231. 
Gapes,  531. 
Geese,  471. 

Girls'  and   boys'   clubs,    440,   445. 
Gizzard,  503. 
Glucose,   78. 
Gluten  feed,  118. 
Glycerine,  78. 
Glycogen,   70. 
Goats,   353,   355. 
Grade  animals,  39. 
Grades  of   stock,   140,    141. 
Grading     live-stock     shipments, 
455. 

wool,   327. 

Grain  and  roughage,  369. 
Grasses,  100,  104. 
Grease,  yolk  or,  326. 
Green  animals,   127. 
Green  food  for  fowls,  505. 
Grooming  horses,  208. 
Grouping  market  live  stock,  139. 

flock  sheep,  379. 
Growing  breeding  cattle,  248. 
Guernseys — 

characteristics,  279. 

distribution,   281. 

milk,  280. 

prices.   281. 
Gullet,  50g. 

Haecker  standards,  9L 

Ham,  416. 

Hampshire  Down,  343. 

Harness,   breast,   215. 

Hay,   legumes,   107. 

Hays,   pastures,  etc.,   100. 

Head  lice,  532. 

Heat  value,  79,  80. 

Heaves,    176. 

Hemorrhagic  septicemia,  266. 

Hens,  egg-eating,   534. 

score  card,  479. 
Herd  book,   swine,   436. 
Herd  record,  private,  53. 
Herds,   accredited,   264. 

advertising,    61. 
Hereditary  characters,  26. 
Heredity,  21.  22. 
Herefords,   223. 

characteristics,  225. 

Polled,  226. 
Hog- 
bacon  type,  415. 

cholera,  434. 

condition,  407. 


546 


A   STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


early  forms,  390. 
form  of,   405. 
lard   type,   405. 
market  types,  404. 
points,  408,  416. 
quality,  407. 
score  card,  404,  405. 
size,  404. 
weight,  404. 

Wild,  389. 
Holding  sheep,  356. 
Holland  turkey,  White,  468. 
Holstein-Friesians,   274. 

characteristics,  275. 

distribution,  278. 

milk,  276. 

prices,  278. 
Hominy  feed,   118. 
Horse — 

action,  171,  188,  194. 

age,  173. 

American  saddle,  148. 

appearance,  carriage,  184. 
draft,  190. 

Arab,  146. 

Belgian,  158. 

blanketing,  210. 

breeds,  144. 

care,  208. 

clipping,  209. 

Clydesdale,   155. 

development  of  breeds,  146. 

disposition,  172. 

fattening,  204. 

feeding,   197,  204. 

growing,  208. 

harness,   214. 

judging,  183,  195. 

Percheron,    153. 

points,   164,   181. 

prehistoric,  144. 

quality,  172. 

salting,  206. 

score  card,  185,  192. 

shire,  156. 

soundness,  175. 

Suffolk,  159. 

teeth,  174,  175.  . 

Thoroughbred,   147.  ' 

use,  197. 

watering,  205. 

work,  197. 

Hothouse  lambs,  375. 
Houses — 

colony,  518. 

fattening,  517. 

floor,   523. 

foundation,  520. 

location,  519. 


partition    material,    523, 

poultry,   515 . 

roof,  521. 

size,  420. 

styles,   515. 

swine,  437. 

walls,   521. 

windows,  523. 
Hulls,  oat,  120. 
Hurdle,  sheep,  386. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  77. 

Ideal   in   breeding,   23. 
Identification  of  breeding  stock, 

54. 

Immature  animals,  127. 
Incubator,    494,   498. 
Incubation,  491,  498. 
Indian  corn,   104,   116. 
Indian  Runner,  470. 
Inheritance,  24. 
Intestines,   73,    503. 
Irish  Grazier  swine,  392. 

Jaw,  horse's  lower,  164. 
Jersey  Red  swine,  395. 
Jerseys — 

characteristics,    270. 

distribution,   273. 

prices,    273. 
Jowl   of  hog,    408. 
Judge,  decision  of,  137. 

capable,    128. 
Judging — 

bacon  hog,   415. 

beef  cattle,  233. 

breeding  beef  cattle,  243. 

comparative,  473. 

dairy  cattle,   272,   288,  291. 

eggs,  481. 

farm  animals,  125,   126. 

fowls,   473,   476.    478,   479. 

horses,  183,  190. 

lard-type  hog,  413. 

sheep,  356,  361,  365. 

swine,    395,   404. 
Judgment  of  stockman,  126. 

Kemp,  326. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,   101. 
Kerry  cattle,   285. 
Knitting  wools,  327. 
Knowledge  of  breed  characters, 
86. 

Labor,  use  of  animals  for,  14. 
Lactation,   303. 
Lactials,  78. 
Lactose,   70. 
Lambs,    feeding,    371. 
rations    for,    374. 


INDEX 


547 


Laminitis,    180. 

Langshan,  4G6. 

Latent  hereditary  characters,  26. 

Laying  pen,  515. 

Leg  weakness,   fowls',    535. 

Leghorn,  464. 

Legumes,  107. 

Leicester,  348. 

Lice,  532. 

Light  Brahma,  466. 

Lincoln   Sheep,  350. 

Linseed  meal,  121. 

Literature  on  breeds,  55. 

Litters,   marking,   435. 

Live  stock — 

associations,  452,  453. 

clubs,   440. 

commercial    importance,    10. 

co-operative  selling,  456. 

farming,  18. 

grading  shipments,  455. 

judges,  126,  128. 

market  classes,  139. 
Lump  jaw,  264. 
Luster,  323. 

Machine,  milking,  306. 
Maintenance  ration,   87. 
Mallard  duck,  468. 
Mammary  development,  295. 
Manager,   shipping,    453. 
Mangel-wurzel,  113. 
Margins,  261. 
Market  grades  of  eggs,   501. 

of  live  stock,  139,  140. 
Market  types,  hogs,  404. 
Marketing  sheep,  380. 

little  pigs,   435. 

shipping  stock,  453. 
Markings,  color,  24. 
Meal,  corn,  117. 

corn  and  cob,  118. 

cottonseed,   121. 

linseed,  121. 

meat,  tankage,  122. 
Medulla  wool,  323. 
Merino,    334. 

features,  336. 

score  card,  363,  364. 

types,  335. 

Merit,   44,  50. 

Method  in  breeding,  59. 

in  business,  53. 

in  selection,   31. 
Middlings,  wheat,  119. 
Milk,   123,   303,  304,   305. 
Milk  fat,  test,   307. 
Milk  fever,  267. 
Milk   goat,    354. 


Milk  production,   24. 

factors  influencing,  300,  304. 
Milk  substitute,  312. 
Milk  veins,   298. 
Milk  wells,   299. 
Millet,   102. 

Mineral  food  for  swine,  421. 
Mineral  matter,   66,  78. 
Minorca,   465. 
Mites,  532,  533. 
Moisture  in  incubator,  496. 
Molt  influence,   488. 
Mule,   161. 
Muscovy  duck,  470. 
Mutton  sheep,  359. 

Narragansett  turkey,   468. 
Natural    selection,    29. 
Navicular  disease,  181. 
Nests,  524. 

Nodular  disease,  384. 
Notes  on  animals,  136. 
Nutrients,  76,  81. 
Nutritive  ratio,  81. 

Cats,  106,  120. 

Ohio     farm     bureau     live-stocl; 

associations,  452. 
Orchard  grass,   103. 
Organizing  associations,  63,  450. 
Organs  of   digestion,   fowls,   503. 
Origin  domestic  sheep,  333. 

live  stock  clubs,  440. 
Orpington,   464. 
Oxford  Down,  341. 

Pace,  movement,  171. 
Pacer,  American,  150. 
Palatability,  food,  81. 
Parasites,  sheep,  383. 

swine,  431. 
Pastern,  167,  193. 
Pasture,   100,   318. 
Paved  feed  lot,  260. 
Peas,  Canada  field,  109. 
Pedigree — 

accuracy,  46. 

ancestry  in,  43. 

bracket   form  of,   41. 

merit  value,  38,  44. 

score  card,  45. 

selection  of,  36. 

Sophie's  Bertha,   45. 

study  of,  46. 

Villager,  42. 
Pekin  duck,  469. 
Pelvic  bones,  487. 
Pepsin,  77. 
Peptones,  77. 
Percheron  horse,  153. 


548 


A   STUDY   OF  FARM  AXIMALS 


Perches,   524. 

Persistence  of  heredity,  21. 
Pigs- 
care      at     farrowing-      in      hot 
weather,   431. 

fattening,    425. 

feeding-  young-  breeding,  425. 
sucklings,   424. 

food,   419. 

grouping,   430. 

marketing  litters,  435. 
Pin  bones,  487. 
Pith,   wool,    324. 
Plants — 

compared  with  animals,  72. 

composition   of,   65. 

fat  in,   68. 

mineral  matter  in,   66. 

protein  in,   67. 

source  of  food,  65. 
Platform,  swine  feeding,  436. 
Plymouth  Rock,  462. 
Points  cut,  133. 

of  the  horse,   164. 

scale  of,  129,  130. 
Poland-China  swine,  392,  394. 
Poll,  horse,  164. 
Polled  cattle,  Red,  286. 

Hereford,   226. 

Shorthorn,    223. 
Pork   production,    418,    421. 
Poultry — 

culling,  483. 

diseases,    527. 

disqualification      in      judging, 
478. 

feeding,   503. 

houses,    515. 

judge,   473,    476,   480. 

score  card,  477. 

types  and  breeds,  459. 
Pox,  chicken,  529. 
Prehistoric  horse,  144. 
Premiums,   50. 
Prepotency,  22. 
Preservation  of  eggs,  501. 

Prices,   60. 

Guernseys,   281. 

Holstein-Friesian,  278. 

Jerseys,   273. 
Prizes,   446. 
Production,  beef,  255,  258. 

milk,   24,  302,  303,  306. 

pork,   418. 
Protein,   body,    70. 

in  food,   77. 

in  plant,  67. 
Proteoses,  77. 


Quality  in  cattle,  238,  258,  290. 

in   hogs,   407. 

in  horses,   172. 

in  milk,  304. 
Quarter-crack,  180. 

Racks,  sheep,  387. 
Rambouillet,    337,   338. 
Rams,  feeding,  care,  373. 
Rape,  112. 
Ratio,  nutritive,  81. 
Ration,    balanced,   90. 

calculating,  93-95. 

maintenance,  87. 
Rations — 

adjustment  to  standard,  98. 

dairy   cows,   314. 

egg  production,  511. 

fattening  lambs,   371. 
fowls,  513. 

feeding    fowlo,    510. 
Record,  private  herd,  53. 
Red  clover,  107. 
Red  Polled  cattle,  286. 
Recltop,  103. 

Registry  associations,  53. 
Respiration  calorimeter,  80. 
Rhode  Island  Red,  463. 
Ringbone,    179. 
Roaring,   176. 
Romney  Marsh,   352. 
Root  crops,  113. 
Rot,   foot,   265. 
Rouen  duck,   469. 
Roughage,    68,   100,   253,   311,  369. 
Roup,   527. 
Russian   swine,   392. 
Rutabagas,   113. 
Rye,  106,  121. 

Saanen  goat,  355. 

Saddle,  216. 

Saddle  horse,  American,  148. 

Salt  for  dairy  cattle,  320. 

Scabies,  532. 

Scale  of  points,  use,  129. 

Dorset  Horn,  130. 
Score   card,   129. 

American  Poultry  Association, 
477. 

bacon-type   hog,   415. 

beef  cattle,  234. 

carriage  horse,  185. 

commercial,  481. 

dairy  cows,  291. 

Delaine  Merino,  363. 

draft  horse,  192. 

fat  hog,  404,  405. 

fowls,  479. 


INDEX 


549 


mutton  type,  362. 

pedigree,  45. 

value  of,  131,  133. 
Scoring1,  figures  in,  132. 
Screenings,  wheat,   120. 
Selection,   29-35. 
Self-feeder,  sheep,  377. 
Selling-  co-operatively,  456. 
Selling  margin,   261. 
Shank  color,   486. 
Shearing,  rules,  331. 

Sheep — 

age,   358. 

Black-faced  Highland,  332. 

care,    379. 

Cheviot,  345. 

classes,  333. 

Cotswold,  349. 

dipping,  382. 

docking,   385. 

Dorset  Horn,   344. 

exercise,  381. 

fattening,   374. 

feed  racks,  387. 

feeding,  367,  368,  369. 

grouping,   379. 

Hampshire  Down,    343. 

how   to   study,    357. 

hurdle,  386. 

intestinal  parasites,  383, 

judging,   356,   361,   365. 

Leicester,    348. 

Lincoln,   350. 

marking,  380. 

origin,   333. 

Oxford  Down, 

Rambouillet,   337. 

Romney  Marsh,   352. 

salting-',    376. 

scale    of   points,    130. 

score  card,  362. 

shearing,  330. 

shelter,    381. 

Shropshire,   340. 

Southdown,   338. 

Suffolk,    347. 

Tunis,    347. 

water  for,  377. 
Shelter  for  fowls,  515,   519. 

for  sheep,  381. 

for  swine,   437. 
Shetland  pony,  160. 
Shipping  associations,  450-455. 
Shire  horse,    156. 
Short-fed  cattle,  252. 
Shropshire,  340. 
Sidebone,  179. 
Silage,   110. 


Sinking  fund,  455. 
Sire,  pure-bred,  40. 
Site,  poultry  house,  520. 
Size,  dairy  animal,  288. 

eggs,   499. 

hog,   404. 

poultry  house,  520. 
Small  Yorkshire  swine,  402. 
Soil  fertility,  16. 
Sophie's   Bertha  pedigree,   45. 
Sores  and  wounds,  211. 
Sorghums,    106. 
Soundness  of  horse,   175. 

of  wool  fiber,   326. 
Southdown,  338. 
Sow,  feeding  brood,  423. 

care  at  farrowing,  430. 
Soy  beans,  109. 
Spavin,    176. 

bog,  178. 
Speed,   25. 
Splint,  180. 

Spotted  Poland-China,  394. 
Standards,  feeding,  84,  86. 

adjustment  of  rations,  98. 

beef  cattle,  245. 

dairy  cattle,  91,   96,  310. 

modified  Wolff-Lehmann,  88. 

selection   of,   93. 

sheep,   367. 

Wolff  tables,  87,  538. 
Steers,  feeding  roughage,  253. 
Stockman,  judgment  of,   126. 
Stomach,  fowl,  508. 

capacity,   76. 
Stomach    worms,    383. 
Structure  wool,  322. 
Study  of  animal  form,   138. 

domestic  animals,   9. 

energy    value,    90. 

local  conditions,  51. 

pedigree,  46. 
Suckling  pigs,   424. 
Sudan  grass,  104. 
Suffolk   horse,   159. 
Suffolk  sheep,  347. 
Suggestions  to  breeders,  48. 
Summer  feeding,  steer,  250. 
Swede  turnips,  113. 
Swine — 

bedding,  431. 

Berkshire,  39-0. 

breeds,    389. 

care,  430. 

Cheshire,  402. 

Chester  White,   397. 

Duroc  Jersey,  395. 

exercise,  431. 


550 


A  STUDY  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 


feeding,  418,  420. 

platform,  436. 

requirements,  418. 

standards,   418. 
Hampshire,  399. 
herd  book,  436. 
judging,  404. 
parasites,   431. 
Poland  China,   392. 
quarters,  431,  437. 
Small  White,  402. 
Tamworth,  402. 
tuberculosis,  435. 
water  for,  423. 
Yorkshire,  400. 
Swiss  Cattle,  Brown,  284. 

Tamworth  swine,  402. 
Tankage,  122. 
Tapeworm,   384. 
Teeswater  cattle,  218. 
Teeth,  horses',   173,  175. 

sheep,  358. 

Temperament,   25,   290. 
Temperature,  incubator,  495. 
Testing  association,  cow,  308. 
Testing  for  milk  fat,  307. 
Therm,  80. 

Thin-rind   swine,   399. 
Thoroughbred  horse,  147. 
Thoroughpin,  178. 
Thrush,  210. 
Timothy,  102. 
Toe-crack,  180. 
Toggenburg  goat,  334. 
Tompkins  family,  224. 
Toulouse  goose,  471. 
Training  the   colt,    212. 
Trimming  feet,  sheep,  385. 
Trot,   movement,   171. 
Trotter,  American,  150. 
Trypsin,   77. 

Tuberculosis,  262,  435,  530. 
Tunis  sheep,  347. 
Turkeys,  467,   468. 
Turning   eggs,   497. 
Turnips,   113. 
Tusks,  removing,  435. 
Type,  animal,  138,  142. 

of  foundation   stock,   35. 

in  beef  production,  255. 
Types  of  poultry,  459. 

Udder,   295. 

Unproductive  cow,  301. 
Use  of— 

animals  for  food,  13. 

figures  in  scoring,  132. 

horse,   197. 


scale  of  points,  129. 
water  by  animals,  81. 

for  clothing,  13. 

for  fertility,   16. 

for  labor,  14. 

Value   of  grasses,    100. 

of  pedigree,  44. 

of  pure-bred  sire,  40. 

of  relative  parts,  132. 

of  score,  133. 

Variation  in  character,  28. 
Varieties  of  fowls,  462. 
Veins,  milk,   298. 
Ventilation,  incubator,  496. 
Villi,  28. 
Vitamines,  71. 

Warbles,   267. 
Water,   66. 

for  dairy  cow,  320. 

for  fowls,  509. 

for  horse,  205. 

for  sheep,  377. 

for   swine,    423. 

in  animal  body,  69. 

use  of  by  animals,  81. 
Watson,  Hugh,  227. 
Weathers,  375. 
Weight  of  hog,  404. 

of  eggs,  499. 

of  horse,  172. 

related  to  feeding,  420. 
Wells,  milk,  299. 
Wheat,    106,    118. 

bran,    119. 

middlings,   119. 

screenings,  120. 
White  cattle,  Wild,  217. 
White  diarrhoea,  529. 
White  Holland  turkey,  468. 
Wild  boar,  389. 
Wild  duck,    468. 
Winter  lamb,  375. 
Wolff   feeding   standards,   87. 
Wolff-Lehmann     standards, 

93,   368. 
Wool- 
carpet,  327. 

clothing,    327,   328. 

combing,  327,  328. 

commercial  production,  322. 

cortex,   323,   324. 

crimp,   324. 

Delaine,   328. 

domestic,    328. 

epidermis,    323. 

features  of,  324. 


INDEX  551 


fiber   length,    325.  Worms,  stomach,   383. 

fineness   of,    325.  Wounds,   horse,   211. 

grading  of,   327.  Wyandotte,  463. 

market  classification,  327. 

medulla,  323.  Yearlings,  feeding,  251. 

pith,  324.  Yellow  pigment,  484. 

soundness  of  fiber,  326.  Yolk,   491. 

territory,   328.  Yolk,   or  grease,   326. 

trueness  of  fiber,  325.  Yorkshire   swine,   400. 

Work  of  horse,   197.  Young  breeders,  48. 


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